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West Germany was formed as a political entity during the Allied occupation of Germany after World War II , established from eleven states formed in the three Allied zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Its provisional capital was the city of Bonn. Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and a divided Berlin. Initially, West Germany claimed an exclusive mandate for all of Germany, identifying as the sole democratically reorganised continuation of the — German Reich.
In addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto eleventh state. While legally not part of West Germany, as Berlin was under the control of the Allied Control Council , West Berlin politically aligned with West Germany and was directly or indirectly represented in its federal institutions.
The foundation for the influential position held by Germany today was laid during the economic miracle of the s Wirtschaftswunder , when West Germany rose from the enormous destruction wrought by World War II to become the world's third-largest economy.
The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer , who remained in office until , worked for a full alignment with NATO rather than neutrality, and secured membership in the military alliance. Adenauer was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union.
When the G6 was established in , there was no serious debate as to whether West Germany would become a member. Following the collapse of the Eastern Bloc , symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall , both territories took action to achieve German reunification. East Germany voted to dissolve and accede to the Federal Republic of Germany in They formally joined the federal republic on 3 October , raising the total number of states from ten to sixteen, and ending the division of Germany.
The reunited Germany is the direct continuation of the state previously informally called West Germany and not a new state, as the process was essentially a voluntary act of accession: the Federal Republic of Germany was enlarged to include the additional six states of the former German Democratic Republic.
The expanded federal republic retained West Germany's political culture and continued its existing memberships in international organisations, as well as its Western foreign policy alignment and affiliation to Western alliances such as the United Nations , NATO, OECD , and the European Economic Community.
This changed under its constitution , when the idea of a single German nation was abandoned by East Germany. As a result, it officially considered West Germans and West Berliners as foreigners.
Other Eastern Bloc nations soon followed suit. On 31 May , the heads of West German federal and state governments recommended always using the full name in official publications. From then on, West German sources avoided the abbreviated form, with the exception of left-leaning organizations which embraced it. ISO alpha-2 codes are the most widely used country codes, and the DE code is notably used as a country identifier, extending the postal code and as the Internet's country code top-level domain.
The colloquial term West Germany or its equivalent was used in many languages. Westdeutschland was also a widespread colloquial form used in German-speaking countries, usually without political overtones. On 4—11 February leaders from the United States , the United Kingdom , and the Soviet Union held the Yalta Conference where future arrangements regarding post-war Europe and Allied strategy against Japan in the Pacific were negotiated.
They agreed that the boundaries of Germany as at 31 December would be chosen as demarcating German national territory from German-occupied territory; all German annexations after were automatically null. Subsequently, and into the s, the West German state was to maintain that these boundaries continued to be 'valid in international law'; although the Allies had already agreed amongst themselves that East Prussia and Silesia must be transferred to Poland and the Soviet Union in any Peace agreement.
The conference agreed that post-war Germany, minus these transfers, would be divided into four occupation zones : a French Zone in the far west; a British Zone in the northwest; an American Zone in the south; and a Soviet Zone in the East.
Berlin was separately divided into four zones. These divisions were not intended to dismember Germany, only to designate zones of administration. By the subsequent Potsdam Agreement , the four Allied Powers asserted joint sovereignty over "Germany as a whole", defined as the totality of the territory within the occupation zones.
Former German areas east of the rivers Oder and Neisse and outside of 'Germany as a whole' were separated from German sovereignty in July and transferred from Soviet military occupation to Polish and Soviet in the case of the territory of Kaliningrad civil administration, their Polish and Soviet status to be confirmed at a final Peace Treaty. Following wartime commitments by the Allies to the governments-in-exile of Czechoslovakia and Poland, the Potsdam Protocols also agreed to the 'orderly and humane' transfer to Germany as a whole of the ethnic German populations in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary.
Eight million German expellees and refugees eventually settled in West Germany. Between and , three of the occupation zones began to merge. First, the British and American zones were combined into the quasi-state of Bizonia. Soon afterwards, the French zone was included into Trizonia. Conversely, the Soviet zone became East Germany. In the dominant post-war narrative of West Germany, the Nazi regime was characterised as having been a 'criminal' state, [5] illegal and illegitimate from the outset; while the Weimar Republic was characterised as having been a 'failed' state, [6] whose inherent institutional and constitutional flaws had been exploited by Hitler in his illegal seizure of dictatorial powers.
Consequently, following the death of Hitler in and the subsequent capitulation of the German Armed Forces, the national political, judicial, administrative, and constitutional instruments of both Nazi Germany and the Weimar Republic were understood as entirely defunct, such that a new West Germany could be established in a condition of constitutional nullity. In with the continuation and aggravation of the Cold War witness the Berlin Airlift of —49 , the two German states that were originated in the Western Allied and the Soviet Zones became known internationally as West Germany and East Germany.
In West Germany and East Germany jointly signed the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany also known as the "Two-plus-Four Agreement" ; by which transitional status of Germany following World War II was definitively ended and the Four Allied powers relinquished their joint residual sovereign authority for Germany as a whole including the area of West Berlin which had officially remained under Allied occupation for the purposes of international and GDR law a status that the Western countries applied to Berlin as a whole despite the Soviets declaring the end of occupation of East Berlin unilaterally many decades before.
The Two-plus-Four Agreement also saw the two parts of Germany confirm their post-war external boundaries as final and irreversible including the transfer of former German lands east of the Oder—Neisse line , and the Allied Powers confirmed their consent to German Reunification.
With territories and frontiers that coincided largely with the ones of old Middle Ages East Francia and the 19th-century Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine , the Federal Republic of Germany, founded on 23 May , under the terms of the Bonn—Paris conventions it obtained "the full authority of a sovereign state" on 5 May although "full sovereignty" was not obtained until the Two Plus Four Agreement in The former capital, Berlin , had been divided into four sectors, with the Western Allies joining their sectors to form West Berlin , while the Soviets held East Berlin.
West Berlin was completely surrounded by East German territory and had suffered a Soviet blockade in —49, which was overcome by the Berlin airlift. The outbreak of the Korean War in June led to U. Germany's partners in the European Coal and Steel Community proposed to establish a European Defence Community EDC , with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states.
Though the EDC treaty was signed May , it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it August , the treaty died. The French Gaullists and communists had killed the French government's proposal. Then other means had to be found to allow West German rearmament. West Germany was to be permitted to rearm an idea many Germans rejected , and have full sovereign control of its military, called the Bundeswehr.
The WEU, however, would regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Also, Germans could reject military service on grounds of conscience, and serve for civil purposes instead. The three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements.
France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in Konrad Adenauer was 73 years old when he became chancellor in , and for this reason he was initially reckoned as a caretaker. However, he stayed in power for 14 years. The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in In October the weekly news magazine Der Spiegel published an analysis of the West German military defence.
The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of Der Spiegel in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized.
Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the Bundestag that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of Franz Josef Strauss , Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis.
Adenauer was still wounded by his brief run for president, and this episode damaged his reputation even further. He announced that he would step down in the fall of His successor was to be Ludwig Erhard. In the early s, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In growth rate was 4. After a brief recovery, the growth rate slowed again into a recession, with no growth in A new coalition was formed to deal with this problem.
Erhard stepped down in and was succeeded by Kurt Georg Kiesinger. This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts : the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency. During the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the Free Democratic Party , the rising West German student movement , a group calling itself Notstand der Demokratie "Democracy in Crisis" and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament.
A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in , when the Shah of Iran , Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance.
Supporters of the Shah later known as Jubelperser , armed with staves and bricks attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the centre was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head and killed by a plainclothes policeman.
It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German security forces. Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the tabloid Bild -Zeitung newspaper, as a massive disruption to life in Berlin, in a massive campaign against the protesters.
Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam , mingled with anger over the vigour with which demonstrations were repressed led to mounting militance among the students at the universities in Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called Rudi Dutschke who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin.
Just before Easter , a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken. In the wakes of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of the parent-generation in the Nazi era.
The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but until a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. One courageous attorney, Fritz Bauer patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the Auschwitz concentration camp and about twenty were put on trial in Frankfurt in Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the Shoah was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed.
The term "Holocaust" for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in , when a American mini-series with that name was shown on West German television. The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later. The calling in question of the actions and policies of government led to a new climate of debate.
The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights.
Until a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims led to growing militance among students and their supporters.
In May , three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the "struggle against imperialism".
TSANZ Oral Presentations
Deficits in basal ganglia-based inhibitory and timing circuits along with sensorimotor internal modeling mechanisms are thought to underlie stuttering. However, much remains to be learned regarding the precise manner how these deficits contribute to disrupting both speech and cognitive functions in those who stutter. Herein, we examine the suitability of electroencephalographic EEG mu rhythms for addressing these deficits. We review some previous findings of mu rhythm activity differentiating stuttering from non-stuttering individuals and present some new preliminary findings capturing stuttering-related deficits in working memory. Mu rhythms are characterized by spectral peaks in alpha 8—13 Hz and beta 14—25 Hz frequency bands mu-alpha and mu-beta. More specifically, alpha peaks mu-alpha are sensitive to basal ganglia-based inhibitory signals and sensory-to-motor feedback. Beta peaks mu-beta are sensitive to changes in timing and capture motor-to-sensory i.
Element EDPF7AWE2 Black Digital photo frame 7-480 x 234
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The Kwajalein hourglass
At PIX we took the opportunity to sit down and talk with industry leaders while they were in our neighborhood. Sony's Alpha system has made some interesting moves over the last year, and we asked product manager Kenta Honjo all of our burning questions, including what's in store for the future of the system. He discusses how Sony plans to break into markets currently dominated by traditional DSLRs as well as the fate of the a-mount. Check out the full interview above. I wonder what the next hot chatter will be when Canikon decides to roll out mirrorless simply to save on manufacturing and warranty costs regardless of what the customer wants and in the process removes this ballyhooed uniqueness in the market?
Professor Alan Brichta
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West Germany
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Stopping Nigeria’s Spiralling Farmer-Herder Violence
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School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy Anatomy. Tucked away deep in the hardest part of the skull hides the vestibular system, the mysterious unsung hero of the senses. Professor Alan Brichta is its number one fan. We don't realise this thing is working in our favour until it goes wrong. The relatively recent recognition of the existence of the sense of balance, as well as the inaccessible position of the inner ear vestibular organs within the skull, means there is a lack of evidence-based research on this system in action. To counter this, Alan and his team have developed a semi-intact model of the vestibular system, which allows for live cells to remain functional. When not investigating the inner ear, Alan is Head of Discipline Anatomy , supervisor of multiple research students, and teaching into a number of programs including the Bachelor of Medicine and the Bachelor of Biomedical Science.
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