Loudness theory
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Theory of Sound
Thank you for visiting nature. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. A new theory suggests a natural basis for our preference for musical consonance.
But does such a preference exist at all, wonders Philip Ball. What was avant-garde yesterday is often blandly mainstream today. Shapira Lots and Stone suggest that a preference for consonance may be hard-wired into the way we hear music. This, the researchers argue, creates robust, synchronized firing of the neural circuits that register the tones.
The reality, however, is much more complicated, both in ways the authors acknowledge and in ways they do not. At the neural level, our response to different pitches seems to be governed by oscillators — either single neurons or small groups of them — that fire and produce an output signal when stimulated by an oscillatory input signal coming from the ear's cochlea.
A harmonic interval of two simultaneous notes excites two such oscillators. What if they are coupled so that the activity of one can influence that of the other? When mode-locked, the neural responses reinforce each other, which can be deemed to provoke a stronger response to the acoustic stimulus. Mode-locked synchronization can occur for any frequency ratios of the input signals, but it is particularly stable — the ratio of output frequencies stays constant over a particularly wide range of input frequencies — when the input signals have ratios close to small numbers, such as , , or These are precisely the frequency ratios of intervals deemed to be consonant: the octave, fifth, fourth C to F , and so on.
In other words, neural synchrony is especially easy to establish for these intervals. In fact, the stability of synchrony, judged this way, mirrors the degree of consonance for all the intervals in the major and minor scales of Western music: the major sixth C-A , major third C-E and minor third C-E flat are all slightly less stable than the fourth, and are followed, in decreasing order of stability, by the minor sixth C-A flat , major second C-D , major seventh C-B and minor seventh C-B flat.
One could interpret this as not only rationalizing conventional Western harmony but also supporting the very choice of note frequency ratios in the Western major and minor scales.
This is a very old idea. For one thing, it generated new notes indefinitely whenever tunes were transposed from one key to another — in essence, Pythagorean tuning assigns a different frequency to sharps and their corresponding flats F sharp and G flat, say , and the result is a proliferation of finely graded notes.
But the problem of transposition was not fully solved until the introduction of equal temperament, beginning in earnest from around the eighteenth century, which divides the octave into twelve equal pitch steps, called semitones. The differences in frequency ratio between Pythagorean, just and equal-tempered intonation are very small for some intervals, but significant for others such as the major third.
In any event, the mathematical and physiological bases of consonance continued to be debated. If this difference is very small, beats are heard as a periodic rise and fall in the volume of the sound.
But as the frequency difference increases, the beating gets faster, and when it exceeds about 20 hertz it instead creates an unpleasant, rattling sensation called roughness. Because real musical notes are complex mixtures of many overtones, there are several potential pairs of slightly detuned tones for any two-note chord. Von Helmholtz showed that beat-induced roughness is small for consonant intervals of such complex tones, but larger for dissonant intervals.
There are more important reasons why the new work falls short of providing a full account of consonance and dissonance. For one thing, these terms have more than a single meaning. Musical dissonance is something else, and a matter of mere convention. As I say, the major third interval that now seems so pleasing to us was not recognized as consonant until the Renaissance, and only the octave was deemed consonant before the ninth century.
And sensory dissonance is itself a poor guide to what people will judge to be pleasing. It's not clear, for example, that the fourth is actually perceived as more consonant than the major third 2. It is certainly the case, as Shapira Lots and Stone say, that the musical systems of most cultures are based around the octave, and that intervals of a fifth are widespread too. The slendro scale of Indonesian gamelan music, for instance, divides the octave into five roughly equal and somewhat variable pitch steps, with none of the resulting intervals corresponding to small-number frequency ratios.
Claims that infants prefer consonant intervals over dissonant ones 3 are complicated by the possibility of cultural conditioning. Babies can hear and respond to sound even in the womb, and they have a phenomenal capacity to assimilate patterns and regularities in their environment. A sceptical reading of experiments on infants and primates might acknowledge some evidence that both the octave and the fifth are privileged, but nothing more 4.
Shapira Lots, I. Interface doi Krumhansl, C. Schellenberg, E. Article Google Scholar. Patel, A. Download references. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Journal of the Royal Society Interface. Reprints and Permissions. Ball, P. A sound theory?. Nature Download citation. Published : 13 June Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.
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References 1 Shapira Lots, I. Article Google Scholar 4 Patel, A. Authors Philip Ball View author publications. Rights and permissions Reprints and Permissions. About this article Cite this article Ball, P. Copy to clipboard. Search Search articles by subject, keyword or author. Show results from All journals This journal.

MUS2800 – Sound Theory 1
Sound and voice are terms for a broad range of different media, which can themselves be mediated by other physical such as air , mechanical such as radio and phonograph , and psychological such as interpreter, editor media. These intermediate media have influenced the use and meaning of sound and voice throughout history. From the perspective of acoustics, we think of sound as a periodic disturbance from a state of equilibrium propagated through some elastic material medium. Encyclopedia Britannica Online , Sound From a more subjective standpoint, we might only speak of sound, if a sensation reaches the ear and can be perceived by it, a definition which excludes all events that are beyond the frequencies audible to human beings. There must be a vibrating source to set up sound waves, a medium such as air to carry the waves, and a receiver to detect them. In a more general sense, anything producing some kind of sound can be a source, which renders problematic the differentiation of sound from noise. See noise.
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In acoustics , loudness is the subjective perception of sound pressure. More formally, it is defined as, "That attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which sounds can be ordered on a scale extending from quiet to loud". The study of apparent loudness is included in the topic of psychoacoustics and employs methods of psychophysics. In different industries, loudness may have different meanings and different measurement standards.
Global Survey
This blog post covers the equipment used for live sound production. It explores sound reinforcement, loudspeaker arrays, signal processing, and other topics related to amplified public address. This post also features a how-to guide for setting up PA systems. Finally, there is a quiz for assessing your knowledge of sound reinforcement. This post covers the art and craft of mixing. It considers adjustable components, common problems, and goals.
Gullfoss – Sound Theory Raffle
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LOUDNESS IN THE ARC OF LOUDNESS THEORY
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Propagation of Sound in the Ocean
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What is sound?
However, due in large part to the fact that judgements about what constitutes noise are highly subjective, researchers have often struggled to define it. Beyond this, however, no effort has been directed towards exploring the link between dirt and noise or seeing how far the analogy between the two extends. Tip This page contains media that is intended to start playback automatically on opening. This may include sound. Your browser is blocking automated playback.
4. Sound Theory
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