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A loudspeaker or speaker driver , or most frequently just speaker is an electroacoustic transducer , [1] that is, a device that converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. The speaker driver can be viewed as a linear motor attached to a diaphragm which couples that motor's movement to motion of air, that is, sound. An audio signal, typically from a microphone, recording, or radio broadcast, is amplified electronically to a power level capable of driving that motor in order to reproduce the sound corresponding to the original unamplified electronic signal.
This is thus the opposite function to the microphone , and indeed the dynamic speaker driver, by far the most common type, is a linear motor in the same basic configuration as the dynamic microphone which uses such a motor in reverse, as a generator. The dynamic speaker was invented in by Edward W. Kellogg and Chester W. Rice issued as US Patent 1,, Apr 2, When the electrical current from an audio signal passes through its voice coil —a coil of wire capable of moving axially in a cylindrical gap containing a concentrated magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet —the coil is forced to move rapidly back and forth due to Faraday's law of induction ; this attaches to a diaphragm or speaker cone as it is usually conically shaped for sturdiness in contact with air, thus creating sound waves.
In addition to dynamic speakers, several other technologies are possible for creating sound from an electrical signal, a few of which are in commercial use. In order for a speaker to efficiently produce sound, especially at lower frequencies, the speaker driver must be baffled so that the sound emanating from its rear does not cancel out the intended sound from the front; this generally takes the form of a speaker enclosure or speaker cabinet , an often rectangular box made of wood, but sometimes metal or plastic.
The enclosure's design plays an important acoustic role thus determining the resulting sound quality. Most high fidelity speaker systems picture at right include two or more sorts of speaker drivers, each specialized in one part of the audible frequency range.
The smaller drivers capable of reproducing the highest audio frequencies are called tweeters , those for middle frequencies are called mid-range drivers and those for low frequencies are called woofers. In a two-way or three-way speaker system one with drivers covering two or three different frequency ranges there is a small amount of passive electronics called a crossover network which helps direct components of the electronic signal to the speaker drivers best capable of reproducing those frequencies.
In a so-called powered speaker system, the power amplifier actually feeding the speaker drivers is built into the enclosure itself; these have become more and more common especially as computer speakers.
Smaller loudspeakers are found in devices such as radios , televisions , portable audio players, and computers. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for home hi-fi systems "stereos" , electronic musical instruments , sound reinforcement in theatres and concert halls, and in public address systems. The term loudspeaker may refer to individual transducers also known as drivers or to complete speaker systems consisting of an enclosure and one or more drivers.
To adequately and accurately reproduce a wide range of frequencies with even coverage, most loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver, particularly for higher sound pressure level or maximum accuracy. Individual drivers are used to reproduce different frequency ranges. The drivers are named subwoofers for very low frequencies ; woofers low frequencies ; mid-range speakers middle frequencies ; tweeters high frequencies ; and sometimes supertweeters , for the highest audible frequencies and beyond.
The terms for different speaker drivers differ, depending on the application. In two-way systems there is no mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds is divided between the woofer and tweeter. Home stereos use the designation tweeter for the high-frequency driver, while professional concert systems may designate them as "HF" or "highs". A loudspeaker system with n separate frequency bands is described as " n -way speakers": a two-way system will have a woofer and a tweeter; a three-way system employs a woofer, a mid-range, and a tweeter.
Loudspeaker drivers of the type pictured are termed dynamic short for electrodynamic to distinguish them from other sorts including moving iron speakers , and speakers using piezoelectric or electrostatic systems. Johann Philipp Reis installed an electric loudspeaker in his telephone in ; it was capable of reproducing clear tones, but later revisions could also reproduce muffled speech.
During this time, Thomas Edison was issued a British patent for a system using compressed air as an amplifying mechanism for his early cylinder phonographs, but he ultimately settled for the familiar metal horn driven by a membrane attached to the stylus. In , Horace Short patented a design for a loudspeaker driven by compressed air; he then sold the rights to Charles Parsons , who was issued several additional British patents before Compressed-air designs are significantly limited by their poor sound quality and their inability to reproduce sound at low volume.
Variants of the design were used for public address applications, and more recently, other variations have been used to test space-equipment resistance to the very loud sound and vibration levels that the launching of rockets produces.
The first experimental moving-coil also called dynamic loudspeaker was invented by Oliver Lodge in Jensen and Edwin Pridham in , in Napa, California.
Jensen was denied patents. Being unsuccessful in selling their product to telephone companies, in they changed their target market to radios and public address systems , and named their product Magnavox. Jensen was, for years after the invention of the loudspeaker, a part owner of The Magnavox Company.
The moving-coil principle commonly used today in speakers was patented in by Edward W. The key difference between previous attempts and the patent by Rice and Kellogg is the adjustment of mechanical parameters to provide a reasonably flat frequency response. These first loudspeakers used electromagnets , because large, powerful permanent magnets were generally not available at a reasonable price.
The coil of an electromagnet, called a field coil, was energized by a current through a second pair of connections to the driver. This winding usually served a dual role, acting also as a choke coil , filtering the power supply of the amplifier that the loudspeaker was connected to. However, AC line frequencies tended to modulate the audio signal going to the voice coil and added to the audible hum. In Jensen introduced the first commercial fixed-magnet loudspeaker; however, the large, heavy iron magnets of the day were impractical and field-coil speakers remained predominant until the widespread availability of lightweight alnico magnets after World War II.
In the s, loudspeaker manufacturers began to combine two and three drivers or sets of drivers each optimized for a different frequency range in order to improve frequency response and increase sound pressure level.
At the New York World's Fair , a very large two-way public address system was mounted on a tower at Flushing Meadows. High-frequency drivers were likely made by Western Electric. Altec Lansing introduced the , which became their most famous coaxial Duplex driver, in It incorporated a high-frequency horn that sent sound through a hole in the pole piece of a inch woofer for near-point-source performance. In , Edgar Villchur developed the acoustic suspension principle of loudspeaker design.
This allowed for better bass response than previously obtainable from drivers mounted in larger cabinets. The most notable improvements to date in modern dynamic drivers, and the loudspeakers that employ them, are improvements in cone materials, the introduction of higher-temperature adhesives, improved permanent magnet materials, improved measurement techniques, computer-aided design, and finite element analysis. At low frequencies, the application of electrical network theory to the acoustic performance allowed by various enclosure designs initially by Thiele, and later by Small has been very important at the design level.
The most common type of driver, commonly called a dynamic loudspeaker , uses a lightweight diaphragm , or cone , connected to a rigid basket , or frame , via a flexible suspension, commonly called a spider , that constrains a voice coil to move axially through a cylindrical magnetic gap.
A protective cap glued in the cone's center prevents dust, most importantly ferromagnetic debris, from entering the gap. When an electrical signal is applied to the voice coil , a magnetic field is created by the electric current in the voice coil, making it a variable electromagnet.
The coil and the driver's magnetic system interact in a manner similar to a solenoid , generating a mechanical force that moves the coil and thus, the attached cone. Application of alternating current moves the code back and forth, accelerating and reproducing sound under the control of the applied electrical signal coming from the amplifier.
The diaphragm is usually manufactured with a cone- or dome-shaped profile. A variety of different materials may be used, but the most common are paper, plastic, and metal. The ideal material would 1 be rigid, to prevent uncontrolled cone motions; 2 have low mass, to minimize starting force requirements and energy storage issues; 3 be well damped , to reduce vibrations continuing after the signal has stopped with little or no audible ringing due to its resonance frequency as determined by its usage.
In practice, all three of these criteria cannot be met simultaneously using existing materials; thus, driver design involves trade-offs. For example, paper is light and typically well damped, but is not stiff; metal may be stiff and light, but it usually has poor damping; plastic can be light, but typically, the stiffer it is made, the poorer the damping. As a result, many cones are made of some sort of composite material. For example, a cone might be made of cellulose paper, into which some carbon fiber , Kevlar , glass , hemp or bamboo fibers have been added; or it might use a honeycomb sandwich construction; or a coating might be applied to it so as to provide additional stiffening or damping.
The chassis, frame, or basket, is designed to be rigid, preventing deformation that could change critical alignments with the magnet gap, perhaps allowing the voice coil to rub against the magnet around the gap. Chassis are typically cast from aluminum alloy, in heavier magnet-structure speakers; or stamped from thin sheet steel in lighter-structure drivers. Metallic chassis can play an important role in conducting heat away from the voice coil; heating during operation changes resistance, causes physical dimensional changes, and if extreme, broils the varnish on the voice coil; it may even demagnetize permanent magnets.
The suspension system keeps the coil centered in the gap and provides a restoring centering force that returns the cone to a neutral position after moving.
The spider is usually made of a corrugated fabric disk, impregnated with a stiffening resin. The name comes from the shape of early suspensions, which were two concentric rings of Bakelite material, joined by six or eight curved "legs.
The German firm Rulik still offers drivers with uncommon spiders made of wood. The cone surround can be rubber or polyester foam , treated paper or a ring of corrugated, resin coated fabric; it is attached to both the outer cone circumference and to the upper frame. These diverse surround materials, their shape and treatment can dramatically affect the acoustic output of a driver; each implementation has advantages and disadvantages.
Polyester foam, for example, is lightweight and economical, though usually leaks air to some degree, but is degraded by time, exposure to ozone, UV light, humidity and elevated temperatures, limiting useful life before failure. Treated paper surrounds will eventually fail.
The wire in a voice coil is usually made of copper , though aluminum —and, rarely, silver —may be used. The advantage of aluminum is its light weight, which reduces the moving mass compared to copper. This raises the resonant frequency of the speaker and increases its efficiency. A disadvantage of aluminum is that it is not easily soldered, and so connections are instead often crimped together and sealed. These connections must be made well or they may fail in an intense environment of mechanical vibration.
Voice-coil wire cross sections can be circular, rectangular, or hexagonal, giving varying amounts of wire volume coverage in the magnetic gap space. The coil is oriented co-axially inside the gap; it moves back and forth within a small circular volume a hole, slot, or groove in the magnetic structure. The gap establishes a concentrated magnetic field between the two poles of a permanent magnet; the outside ring of the gap is one pole, and the center post called the pole piece is the other.
The pole piece and backplate are often made as a single piece, called the poleplate or yoke. Modern driver magnets are almost always permanent and made of ferrite , alnico , or, more recently, rare earth such as neodymium and samarium cobalt. A trend in design — due to increases in transportation costs and a desire for smaller, lighter devices as in many home theater multi-speaker installations — is the use of the last instead of heavier ferrite types.
Very few manufacturers still produce electrodynamic loudspeakers with electrically powered field coils , as was common in the earliest designs; one of the last is a French firm.
When high field-strength permanent magnets became available after WWII, alnico, an alloy of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt became popular, since it dispensed with the problems of field-coil drivers. Alnico was used almost exclusively until about , [ citation needed ] despite the embarrassing problem of alnico magnets being partially degaussed i. The damage can be reversed by "recharging" the magnet, but this requires uncommon specialist equipment and knowledge. After , most but not quite all driver manufacturers switched from alnico to ferrite magnets, which are made from a mix of ceramic clay and fine particles of barium or strontium ferrite.
Although the energy per kilogram of these ceramic magnets is lower than alnico, it is substantially less expensive, allowing designers to use larger yet more economical magnets to achieve a given performance. The size and type of magnet and details of the magnetic circuit differ, depending on design goals. For instance, the shape of the pole piece affects the magnetic interaction between the voice coil and the magnetic field, and is sometimes used to modify a driver's behavior.
A "shorting ring", or Faraday loop, may be included as a thin copper cap fitted over the pole tip or as a heavy ring situated within the magnet-pole cavity. The benefits of this complication is reduced impedance at high frequencies, providing extended treble output, reduced harmonic distortion, and a reduction in the inductance modulation that typically accompanies large voice coil excursions. On the other hand, the copper cap requires a wider voice-coil gap, with increased magnetic reluctance; this reduces available flux, requiring a larger magnet for equivalent performance.
Driver design—including the particular way two or more drivers are combined in an enclosure to make a speaker system—is both an art, involving subjective perceptions of timbre and sound quality and a science, involving measurements and experiments.
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Also, try playing a different audio file, CD, or DVD, or try playing the file or disc on another computer or media player to isolate the problem. Then, try the following solutions. Open the Output pane for me. Make sure the speakers are plugged into the audio out port on your Mac or display, and if necessary, into a power supply. Check for a power switch and volume adjustment on your external speakers. If necessary, turn the speakers on and adjust the speaker volume. Make sure the external USB speakers are selected.
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