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Signal Strength The signal strength in dBm being received by the mobile module. But those bars aren't always accurate so we suggest checking signal strength in decibels dBm. You will see two numbers, the first indicates phone signal strength dBm , with 0 - 50dBm representing excellent signal strength. In the world of cellular signal boosters, dBm measurements represent the strength of a signal at any given location, as well as the amount of power an antenna is capable of amplifying.
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Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. The earthworm is ideal for studying action potential conduction velocity in a classroom setting, as its simple linear anatomy allows easy axon length measurements and the worm's sparse coding allows single action potentials to be easily identified.
The earthworm has two giant fiber systems lateral and medial with different conduction velocities that can be easily measured by manipulating electrode placement and the tactile stimulus.
Here, we present a portable and robust experimental setup that allows students to perform conduction velocity measurements within a min to 1-h laboratory session.
Our improvement over this well-known preparation is the combination of behaviorally relevant tactile stimuli avoiding electrical stimulation with the invention of minimal, low-cost, and portable equipment. We tested these experiments during workshops in both a high school and college classroom environment and found positive learning outcomes when we compared pre- and posttests taken by the students.
Students will also learn how the earthworm's lateral and medial giant nerve fibers transmit different sensory information from different parts of the worm allowing the escape withdrawal reflex in awake, behaving worms.
Advanced students can also learn 1 axonal cable theory and 2 statistical hypothesis testing. Learning neurophysiology, in particular the electrical propagation of action potentials, can be challenging for students. Having a hands-on electrophysiology component to complement neuroscience lectures and laboratories makes the lessons both more compelling and increases learning Moreover, evidence suggests that an active, inquiry-based learning pedagogy for science learning at the high school and university level 12 , 21 , 24 improves student comprehension and retention of scientific concepts, causing a sustained level of interest in pursuing science-, technology-, engineering-, and medicine-based careers.
We 6 , 20 have previously developed experiments that introduce students to the concept of action potentials and rate coding using cockroaches and crickets; here, we developed experiments using earthworms on the more challenging concept of conduction velocity. We build on the work of other groups that have used the earthworm as a teaching platform 7 , 17 ; our focus was on the portability and minimization of equipment.
The earthworm possesses one median giant fiber MGF and two lateral giant fibers LGFs , both of which run the length of the worm and are located in the worm's ventral nerve cord Fig.
The two LGFs are fused together via frequent interconnects and thus are considered one functional giant axon 5 , General earthworm anatomy top with a cross-section bottom zooming in on the ventral nerve cord with a view of the lateral giant fibers LGFs and medial giant fiber MGF. In this report, we describe our experiments designed with the intent to be easily followed by a student or teacher.
We also discuss the potential troubleshooting and pitfalls that may occur while doing the experiments. D—Information Processing. Our experiments teach how an organism the earthworm detects and processes information about a tactile stimulus a head or tail tap by converting the tactile stimulus into an electrical signal action potentials of neurons and then propagating these electrical information signals throughout the animal's body, all of which can be observed via the measurement of neural conduction velocity.
Students can use this knowledge to observe how an unanesthetized worm responds to a light touch on its head or tail with the escape withdrawal reflex: a touch the signal detection causes neuronal spiking information processing , which sends a signal to the muscles to contract the behavior.
Students will also gain general process knowledge, such as how to observe, collect, and analyze physiology data. Enthusiastic students can also learn 1 statistical hypothesis testing between two populations of data and 2 novel experiment design see the discussion for some suggestions. This activity is suitable for high school students and above who have a basic conceptual understanding of what an axon and an action potential are. Since electrophysiology is novel for many students and the methods are sensitive to electromagnetic noise that can easily confuse and frustrate students, close observation and help by the teacher during experiments especially during data collection for the first worm is essential see Troubleshooting below.
A teacher may find doing a quick demonstration of one conduction velocity reading at the beginning of class to be helpful. Before doing this activity, students should have a basic understanding of neuron and earthworm anatomy.
They should also be introduced to the concepts of action potentials and that they progress down an axon with a conduction velocity that can be measured. These can be discussed with the class during a to min lecture before the experiment session. Carbonated water can also be used as an anesthetic if ethanol is not available. Anesthetic effectiveness can be determined by observing a lack of worm movement and a cessation of the escape withdrawal reflex.
The escape withdrawal reflex can be observed by tapping the tail and head with a plastic probe. An alert worm will exhibit a shortening muscle contraction in response to this stimulus, but an anesthetized worm will not have this reflex. After the anesthetic had taken effect, the worm was removed and placed in a container of tap water for several seconds to wash off the anesthetic.
The effects of the anesthetic typically last 5—10 min. The worm was periodically kept moist during experiments with a wet cotton swab brushed along the worm. It is important to not leave the worms in the anesthetic solution excessively, as the worms will not produce action potentials and can also perish. Figure 2 shows our experimental setup. Earthworms were placed on a balsa wood or styrofoam board with measurement marks drawn on the board.
This board was then placed in a small Faraday cage with open ports to access the head and tail of the earthworm. The audio component of the amplifier uses a standard configuration of the LM audio chip Texas Instruments. The output of the two-channel SpikerBox is a standard 3. USB sound cards can sometimes generate a 1-kHz ringing noise artifact, but this can often be grounded out by carefully positioning the earthworm in the Faraday cage.
Experimental setup and equipment. The electrodes were map pins soldered to speaker wire. We used a Faraday cage to reduce noise and had an earthworm on a styrofoam recording platform marked with 2. We grounded the SpikerBox to the Faraday cage using an alligator clip. The plastic stick or glass rod was our means of providing tactile stimuli to the earthworm. Some laptops have stereo input and do not need a two-channel USB converter.
To record the signals and measure the time difference between the two electrodes, we used the open-source audio processing program Audacity, which has versions available for all platforms Mac, Windows, Linux, etc. The earthworm preparation can be sensitive to noise, and a Faraday cage is essential to reduce spurious electromagnetic interference.
A Faraday cage such as the one shown in Fig. The wood strips can then be stapled to the mesh with the first strip at one end of the of mesh, the second strip 5.
The mesh can then be folded into a box, and an alligator clip can be connected from any point on the metal mesh to the ground metal pad on the SpikerBox circuit board or ground on any other system. Further details can found online 4. Enterprising students can also find that metal containers, such as antique lunchboxes, work as well.
We held workshops in both a neuroscience class at a selective liberal arts college and a biology class at a suburban high school in Michigan. Our 2-h workshops were a mix of lectures and demonstrations that covered neural communication, conduction velocity, and cable theory. Students observed and assisted in live demos of the experiments listed in this report and then actively engaged in discussion about the theory and experiments.
Before and immediately after the workshops, on the same day, students were given multiple-choice tests to examine their knowledge of conduction velocity concepts. The pre- and posttests were exactly the same. The college survey had 13 questions that covered conduction velocity physiology and cable theory along with some mathematical questions dealing with time constant and length constant equations.
The high school survey had eight questions and did not have the mathematical questions dealing with time constant and length constant equations.
All survey data collection was performed with informed consent from teachers and students. The earthworm L. Worms were stored in a refrigerator in a styrofoam container filled with soil, and we poured a small amount of water in the box every couple of weeks to keep the soil moist.
The worm's clitellum can be used as an anatomic landmark since it is always closer to the anterior end head than the posterior end anus; Fig. Because the clitellum becomes more pronounced as the earthworm reaches sexual maturity, the experiments are best done on large, sexually mature adults. If the worm has not yet reached sexual maturity and the clitellum is hard to identify, close examination of the posterior end anus will show a flattening, whereas the anterior end head will be cylindrical and cone shaped.
Earthworms, as invertebrates, do not require institutional oversight or approval for experimentation in a classroom or research laboratory. However, we opened the experiments in the classrooms by stating the earthworms can recover from the experiment, discussing the use of anesthesia for humane treatment, mentioning the broader role of animals in physiology research, and pointing out an alternative noninvasive experiment see Experiment 2 below.
Figure 3 shows the electrode positions. We placed the worm into the Faraday cage, and we grounded the Faraday cage to the SpikerBox using an alligator clip cable. Using a ruler or the hash marks drawn on the styrofoam board, we recorded the distance between electrode 1 and electrode 2 where d LGF is the LGF electrode distance measurement and d MGF is the MGF electrode distance measurement.
Channel 1 and channel 2 are shown at a ms timescale left and a zoomed-in 4-ms timescale right. Note the different electrode positions in both cases. To observe a time lag difference between channels 1 and 2 , the waveforms must be zoomed in. Electrode 1 corresponds to channel 1 , and electrode 2 corresponds to channel 2.
We then lightly tapped the very posterior end of the earthworm with a glass or plastic probe. In the seven worms, this mechanical stimulus typically evoked one to three spikes per tap Fig.
We then turned off the SpikerBox but left Audacity running to create an easily recognizable flat line area that can be used as a separation marker between our LGF and MGF spikes, making data analysis easier.
While the SpikerBox was off, we removed the worm from the Faraday cage and repositioned the electrodes in the anterior end of the worm to record from the MGF Fig. Again, we measured the distance between electrode 1 and electrode 2 using a ruler d MGF. We placed the worm back into the Faraday cage and turned the SpikerBox back on. We then caused the spiking response in the MGF by tapping the anterior end of the worm head with the plastic or glass probe.
After several spikes were recorded, we removed the electrodes from the worm and placed the worm back in its moist, soil-laden case in the refrigerator. Cleaning consisted of dumping out the anesthetic solution and wiping the electrodes and styrofoam with a wet cloth. The Audacity file can then be saved in Audacity's format or exported as a.
To analyze the data after a recording in Audacity, we zoomed in on the evoked spikes until we were able to see time differences between the two channels Fig. We then calculated the conduction velocity by dividing the ruler measurement by the time measurement, as follows:. For a good data set, evoked multiple spikes from the MGF and LGF can be collected and measured both in a single worm and across multiple worms Fig. Worms can recover from the experiment and be used again at a later date.
The two right box plots show the variance of the data for all seven worms. Although the use of electrodes inserted in the earthworm keeps the earthworm firmly in place, some students may experience emotional discomfort inserting needles into the creature. Fortunately, it is possible to record spikes ex corporeal using a similar setup as that in experiment 1.
Instead of placing the electrodes into the worm, the electrodes were taped down to the wood or styrofoam recording platform. The metric placement and distance between the electrodes was maintained as described above. The worm was placed on the recording platform in the same way as in experiment 1 , dorsal side up, but resting on top of the electrodes.
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Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. The earthworm is ideal for studying action potential conduction velocity in a classroom setting, as its simple linear anatomy allows easy axon length measurements and the worm's sparse coding allows single action potentials to be easily identified. The earthworm has two giant fiber systems lateral and medial with different conduction velocities that can be easily measured by manipulating electrode placement and the tactile stimulus. Here, we present a portable and robust experimental setup that allows students to perform conduction velocity measurements within a min to 1-h laboratory session.
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House connection amplifiers eco-power with return pathTypeOrder No. They are used tobalance out the cable and distributionattenuation in the CATV domestic networks. The amplifier is configured for the specific useusing jumpers in the device and can be doneboth during installation and during operation. Amplifiers House connection amplifiers eco-power with return pathTypeOrder No. They are usedto balance out the cable and distributionattenuation in the CATV domestic networks.
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