Hegel integrated 3 answers

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• Brain and intersubjectivity: a Hegelian hypothesis on the self-other neurodynamics
• Shapes of Freedom: Hegel's Philosophy of World History in Theological Perspective
• The Idea of Hegel's "Science of Logic"
• Hegel: Social and Political Thought
• The Idea of Hegel's "Science of Logic"
• Hegel H95 Integrated Amplifier

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Brain and intersubjectivity: a Hegelian hypothesis on the self-other neurodynamics

German idealism was a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the s and s, [1] and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment. The period of German idealism after Kant is also known as post-Kantian idealism , post-Kantian philosophy , or simply post-Kantianism. Fichte's philosophical work has controversially been interpreted as a stepping stone in the emergence of German speculative idealism , the thesis that we only ever have access to the correlation between thought and being.

The word " idealism " has multiple meanings. The philosophical meaning of idealism are those properties we discover in objects that are dependent on the way that those objects appear to us, as perceived subjects.

These properties only belong to the perceived appearance of the objects, and not something they possess "in themselves". The term "idea-ism" is closer to this intended meaning than the common notion of idealism.

The question of what properties a thing might have "independently of the mind" is thus unknowable and a moot point , within the idealist tradition. Immanuel Kant 's work purported to bridge the two dominant philosophical schools in the 18th century: 1 rationalism , which held that knowledge could be attained by reason alone a priori prior to experience , and 2 empiricism , which held that knowledge could be arrived at only through the senses a posteriori after experience , as expressed by philosopher David Hume , whom Kant sought to rebut.

Kant called his mode of philosophising " critical philosophy ", in that it was supposedly less concerned with setting out positive doctrine than with critiquing the limits to the theories we can set out. This distinguished it from classical idealism and subjective idealism such as George Berkeley 's, which held that external objects have actual being or real existence only when they are perceived by an observer.

Kant said that there are things-in-themselves noumena , that is , things that exist other than being merely sensations and ideas in our minds. Kant held in the Critique of Pure Reason that the world of appearances phenomena is empirically real and transcendentally ideal.

The mind plays a central role in influencing the way that the world is experienced: we perceive phenomena through time , space and the categories of the understanding.

It is this notion that was taken to heart by Kant's philosophical successors. Arthur Schopenhauer considered himself to be a transcendental idealist. The Young Hegelians , a number of philosophers who developed Hegel's work in various directions, were in some cases idealists.

On the other hand, Karl Marx , who was numbered among them, had professed himself to be a materialist , in opposition to idealism. Another member of the Young Hegelians, Ludwig Feuerbach , advocated for materialism, and his thought was influential in the development of historical materialism , [9] where he is often recognized as a bridge between Hegel and Marx.

Immanuel Kant 's transcendental idealism consisted of taking a point of view outside and above oneself transcendentally and understanding that the mind directly knows only phenomena or ideas. Whatever exists other than mental phenomena, or ideas that appear to the mind, is a thing-in-itself and cannot be directly and immediately known.

Kant criticized pure reason. He wanted to restrict reasoning, judging, and speaking only to objects of possible experience. The main German Idealists, who had been theology students, [11] reacted against Kant's stringent limits. Jacobi agreed that the objective thing-in-itself cannot be directly known. However, he stated, it must be taken on belief. A subject must believe that there is a real object in the external world that is related to the representation or mental idea that is directly known.

This belief is a result of revelation or immediately known, but logically unproved, truth. The real existence of a thing-in-itself is revealed or disclosed to the observing subject. In this way, the subject directly knows the ideal, subjective representations that appear in the mind, and strongly believes in the real, objective thing-in-itself that exists outside the mind. By presenting the external world as an object of belief, Jacobi legitimized belief.

They provided a clear explication of Kant's thoughts, which were previously inaccessible due to Kant's use of complex or technical language. Reinhold also tried to prove Kant's assertion that humans and other animals can know only images that appear in their minds, never "things-in-themselves" things that are not mere appearances in a mind. In order to establish his proof, Reinhold stated an axiom that could not possibly be doubted. From this axiom, all knowledge of consciousness could be deduced.

His axiom was: "Representation is distinguished in consciousness by the subject from the subject and object, and is referred to both. He thereby started, not from definitions, but, from a principle that referred to mental images or representations in a conscious mind. In this way, he analyzed knowledge into 1 the knowing subject, or observer, 2 the known object, and 3 the image or representation in the subject's mind. In order to understand transcendental idealism, it is necessary to reflect deeply enough to distinguish experience as consisting of these three components: subject, subject's representation of object, and object.

Kant noted that a mental idea or representation must be a representation of something, and deduced that it is of something external to the mind. He gave the name of Ding an sich , or thing-in-itself to that which is represented. However, Gottlob Ernst Schulze wrote, anonymously, that the law of cause and effect only applies to the phenomena within the mind, not between those phenomena and any things-in-themselves outside the mind.

That is, a thing-in-itself cannot be the cause of an idea or image of a thing in the mind. In this way, he discredited Kant's philosophy by using Kant's own reasoning to disprove the existence of a thing-in-itself. After Schulze had seriously criticized the notion of a thing-in-itself, Johann Gottlieb Fichte produced a philosophy similar to Kant's, but without a thing-in-itself.

Fichte asserted that our representations, ideas, or mental images are merely the productions of our ego, or knowing subject. For him, there is no external thing-in-itself that produces the ideas. On the contrary, the knowing subject, or ego, is the cause of the external thing, object, or non-ego. Fichte's style was a challenging exaggeration of Kant's already difficult writing.

Also, Fichte claimed that his truths were apparent to intellectual, non-perceptual, intuition. That is, the truth can be immediately seen by the use of reason.

Fichte who, because the thing-in-itself had just been discredited, at once prepared a system without any thing-in-itself. Consequently, he rejected the assumption of anything that was not through and through merely our representation , and therefore let the knowing subject be all in all or at any rate produce everything from its own resources. For this purpose, he at once did away with the essential and most meritorious part of the Kantian doctrine, the distinction between a priori and a posteriori and thus that between the phenomenon and the thing-in-itself.

For he declared everything to be a priori , naturally without any proofs for such a monstrous assertion; instead of these, he gave sophisms and even crazy sham demonstrations whose absurdity was concealed under the mask of profundity and of the incomprehensibility ostensibly arising therefrom. Moreover, he appealed boldly and openly to intellectual intuition, that is, really to inspiration.

Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling attempted to rescue theism from Kant's refutation of the proofs for God's existence. With regard to the experience of objects, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling — claimed that the Fichte's "I" needs the Not-I, because there is no subject without object, and vice versa.

So the ideas or mental images in the mind are identical to the extended objects which are external to the mind. According to Schelling's "absolute identity" or "indifferentism", there is no difference between the subjective and the objective, that is, the ideal and the real.

In , Arthur Schopenhauer criticized Schelling's absolute identity of the subjective and the objective, or of the ideal and the real. For the teaching of those two thinkers [Locke and Kant] may be very appropriately described as the doctrine of the absolute diversity of the ideal and the real, or of the subjective and the objective.

Friedrich Schleiermacher was a theologian who asserted that the ideal and the real are united in God. He understood the ideal as the subjective mental activities of thought, intellect, and reason. The real was, for him, the objective area of nature and physical being.

Schleiermacher declared that the unity of the ideal and the real is manifested in God. The two divisions do not have a productive or causal effect on each other. Rather, they are both equally existent in the absolute transcendental entity which is God. Salomon Maimon influenced German idealism by criticizing Kant's dichotomies, claiming that Kant did not explain how opposites such as sensibility and understanding could relate to each other.

Maimon claimed that the dualism between these faculties was analogous to the old Cartesian dualism between the mind and body, and that all the problems of the older dualism should hold mutatis mutandis for the new one. Such was the heterogeneity between understanding and sensibility, Maimon further argued, that there could be no criterion to determine how the concepts of the understanding apply to the intuitions of sensibility.

For now the question arose how two such heterogeneous realms as the intellectual and the sensible could be known to correspond with one another. The problem was no longer how we know that our representations correspond with things in themselves but how we know that a priori concepts apply to a posteriori intuitions.

Schelling and Hegel, however, tried to solve this problem by claiming that opposites are absolutely identical. Maimon's metaphysical concept of "infinite mind" was similar to Fichte's "Ich" and Hegel's "Geist. What Kant forbade as a violation of the limits of human knowledge, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel saw as a necessity of the critical philosophy itself. Now Maimon was the crucial figure behind this transformation.

By reviving metaphysical ideas from within the problematic of the critical philosophy, he gave them a new legitimacy and opened up the possibility for a critical resurrection of metaphysics. Maimon is said to have Influenced Hegel's writing on Spinoza. Hegel responded to Kant's philosophy by suggesting that the unsolvable contradictions given by Kant in his Antinomies of Pure Reason applied not only to the four areas Kant gave world as infinite vs.

To know this he suggested makes a "vital part in a philosophical theory. For Hegel, thought fails when it is only given as an abstraction and is not united with considerations of historical reality. In his major work The Phenomenology of Spirit he went on to trace the formation of self-consciousness through history and the importance of other people in the awakening of self-consciousness see master-slave dialectic.

Thus Hegel introduces two important ideas to metaphysics and philosophy: the integral importance of history and of the Other person. His work is theological in that it replaces the traditional concept of God with that of an Absolute Spirit.

Hegel claimed that "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all". Objects that appear to a spectator originate in God's mind. Neo-Kantianism refers broadly to a revived type of philosophy along the lines of that laid down by Immanuel Kant in the 18th century, or more specifically by Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy in his work The World as Will and Representation , as well as by other post-Kantian philosophers such as Jakob Friedrich Fries and Johann Friedrich Herbart.

It has some more specific reference in later German philosophy. Hegel was hugely influential throughout the nineteenth century; by its end, according to Bertrand Russell , "the leading academic philosophers, both in America and Britain, were largely Hegelian".

Arthur Schopenhauer contended that Spinoza had a great influence on post-Kantian German idealists. According to Schopenhauer, Kant's original philosophy, with its refutation of all speculative theology , had been transformed by the German Idealists.

Through the use of his technical terms, such as "transcendental," "transcendent," "reason," "intelligibility," and "thing-in-itself" they attempted to speak of what exists beyond experience and, in this way, to revive the notions of God, free will , and immortality of soul.

Kant had effectively relegated these ineffable notions to faith and belief. This grandiose initiative has been misused by the existing powers state, etc. In England, during the nineteenth century, philosopher Thomas Hill Green embraced German Idealism in order to salvage Christian monotheism as a basis for morality. His philosophy attempted to account for an eternal consciousness or mind that was similar to Berkeley 's concept of God and Hegel 's Absolute. John Rodman, in the introduction to his book on Thomas Hill Green's political theory, wrote: "Green is best seen as an exponent of German idealism as an answer to the dilemma posed by the discrediting of Christianity….

Shapes of Freedom: Hegel's Philosophy of World History in Theological Perspective

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The Idea of Hegel's "Science of Logic"

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is one of the greatest systematic thinkers in the history of Western philosophy. In addition to epitomizing German idealist philosophy, Hegel boldly claimed that his own system of philosophy represented an historical culmination of all previous philosophical thought. Of most enduring interest are his views on history, society, and the state, which fall within the realm of Objective Spirit. Some have considered Hegel to be a nationalistic apologist for the Prussian State of the early 19th century, but his significance has been much broader, and there is no doubt that Hegel himself considered his work to be an expression of the self-consciousness of the World Spirit of his time. There are important connections between the metaphysical or speculative articulation of these ideas and their application to social and political reality, and one could say that the full meaning of these ideas can be grasped only with a comprehension of their social and historical embodiment. The work that explicates this concretizing of ideas, and which has perhaps stimulated as much controversy as interest, is the Philosophy of Right Philosophie des Rechts , which will be a main focus of this essay. He was educated at the Royal Highschool in Stuttgart from and steeped in both the classics and the literature of the European Enlightenment. In Hegel received an M. Shortly after graduation, Hegel took a post as tutor to a wealthy Swiss family in Berne from During this time he wrote unpublished essays on religion which display a certain radical tendency of thought in his critique of orthodox religion.

Hegel: Social and Political Thought

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The Idea of Hegel's "Science of Logic"

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German idealism was a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the s and s, [1] and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment. The period of German idealism after Kant is also known as post-Kantian idealism , post-Kantian philosophy , or simply post-Kantianism. Fichte's philosophical work has controversially been interpreted as a stepping stone in the emergence of German speculative idealism , the thesis that we only ever have access to the correlation between thought and being. The word " idealism " has multiple meanings.

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Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. Interestingly, neuroscience has traditionally adopted a Cartesian perspective by which the self is a solipsistic and self-sufficient unit, fundamentally unrelated to the other individuals' representation. Nevertheless, the specific way whereby neural self-other representations co-occur and exert influence on each other in order to promote higher-order functions necessary for social functioning remains largely unclear.