Line array speakers explained synonym
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Oxford English and Spanish Dictionary, Synonyms, and Spanish to English Translator
Is the language faculty non linguistic? View all 10 Articles. Universal Grammar UG is a suspect concept. There is little agreement on what exactly is in it; and the empirical evidence for it is very weak. This paper critically examines a variety of arguments that have been put forward as evidence for UG, focussing on the three most powerful ones: universality all human languages share a number of properties , convergence all language learners converge on the same grammar in spite of the fact that they are exposed to different input , and poverty of the stimulus children know things about language which they could not have learned from the input available to them.
I argue that these arguments are based on premises which are either false or unsubstantiated. Languages differ from each other in profound ways, and there are very few true universals, so the fundamental crosslinguistic fact that needs explaining is diversity, not universality. Finally, the poverty of the stimulus argument presupposes that children acquire linguistic representations of the kind postulated by generative grammarians; constructionist grammars such as those proposed by Tomasello, Goldberg and others can be learned from the input.
We are the only species that has language, so there must be something unique about humans that makes language learning possible. The extent of crosslinguistic diversity and the considerable individual differences in the rate, style and outcome of acquisition suggest that it is more promising to think in terms of a language-making capacity, i. The Universal Grammar UG hypothesis—the idea that human languages, as superficially diverse as they are, share some fundamental similarities, and that these are attributable to innate principles unique to language: that deep down, there is only one human language Chomsky, a , p.
The predominant approach in linguistics for almost 50 years Smith, , p. In this paper, I provide a critical assessment of the UG approach. I argue that there is little agreement on what UG actually is; that the arguments for its existence are either irrelevant, circular, or based on false premises; and that there are fundamental problems with the way its proponents address the key questions of linguistic theory. These are generally thought to include formal universals e.
There is very little agreement, however, on what these actually are. However, every major development in the theory since then was accompanied by very substantial revisions to the list of proposed universals.
Thus the list of UG principles is quite different when we move to the Barriers period, and radically different in Minimalism see below. With respect to parameters, very few scholars have even attempted to give a reasonably comprehensive inventory of what these are.
Two rare exceptions are Baker , who discusses 10 parameters, and Fodor and Sakas , who list In both cases, the authors stress that the list is far from complete; but it is interesting to note that only three parameters occur on both lists Tomasello, ; see also Haspelmath, There is no agreement even on approximately how many parameters there are: thus Pinker , p.
According to Shlonsky , p. Things are no better when we consider substantive universals. While most generative linguists agree that the inventory of lexical categories includes N, V, and A, there is little agreement on what the functional categories are see Newmeyer, ; Corbett, ; Pullum and Tiede, ; Boeckx, Newmeyer surveys some of the relevant literature and concludes:.
It seems fair to say that categories are proposed for a particular language when they appear to be needed for that language, with little thought as to their applicability to the grammar of other languages. My guess is that well over two hundred have been put forward in current work in the principles-and-parameters tradition. The situation, Newmeyer observes, is even less clear when it comes to features:. As a result, supplying even a provisional list of what the set of universal distinctive syntactic features might be seems quite hopeless.
Thus, some linguists see UG as a very elaborate structure, consisting of a large number of principles, parameters, and categories. At the other extreme, we have the strong minimalist thesis, according to which UG may comprise just the structure-building operation Merge cf. Chomsky, , ; Berwick et al. It seems that the only point of agreement amongst proponents of UG is that it exists; they do not agree on what it actually contains. What evidence, then, is there for the existence of specifically linguistic innate knowledge?
I turn to this question in the next section. Over the years, a number of arguments have been put forward in support of the UG hypothesis. These include the following:. Arguments 1—4 are generally regarded as the most powerful ones; 5—10 are subsidiary in the sense they only provide support for the idea of innateness of language general, rather than the innateness of a specific aspect of linguistic organization, and they are also open to other interpretations.
I begin by evaluating the subsidiary arguments, and then move on to the more powerful ones. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit, and a rock, then they believe that language is innate.
Clearly, there is something unique about human biological make-up that makes it possible for humans, and only humans, to acquire language. However, nobody disputes this, so in the passage quoted above Chomsky is fighting a straw man. The crucial question is whether the relevant knowledge or abilities are language-specific or whether they can be attributed to more general cognitive processes—and this is far from clear.
There are a number of other characteristics which appear to be specific to our species. These include collaboration, cultural learning, the use of complex tools, and—surprisingly—the use of pointing and others means of drawing attention to particular features of the immediate environment, such as holding objects up for others to see. As Tomasello et al. Tomasello et al. The ability to read and share intentions, including communicative intentions—i.
First, it enables the language learner to understand what language is for : an animal that did not understand that other individuals have beliefs and intentions different from its own would have little use for language. Secondly, it provides the learner with a vital tool for learning language. In order to learn a language, one must acquire a set of form-meaning conventions; and to acquire these, learners must be able to guess at least some of the meanings conveyed by the utterances they hear.
The human ability to read and share intentions may not explain subjacency effects—the existence of other differences between humans and other species does not entail lack of UG, just as species specificity does not entail its existence. In other words, the fact that we are the only species that has language does not entail that we have innate knowledge of subjacency. In fact, they get vast amounts of language experience. At input words per hour the average number of words heard by the children in the Manchester corpus , 2 this amounts to over 42 million words over 4 years.
Note that this is a rather conservative estimate: we know that language development begins before age 1 Jusczyk, ; Karmiloff and Karmiloff-Smith, and continues throughout childhood and adolescence Nippold, ; Berman, , ; Nippold et al.
Consider, for example, Jim—one of children studied by Sachs et al. In early childhood, Jim had very little contact with hearing adults but watched television quite frequently, and occasionally played with hearing children. His parents used sign language when addressing each other, but did not sign to the children.
At age 3;9 3 years and 9 months —the beginning of the study—Jim had very poor comprehension of spoken language, and severe articulation problems. His utterances were very short, with an MLU mean length of utterance of 2. And, interestingly, although he was exposed to ASL at home, he did not sign. Thus, although he was exposed to both spoken English through television and occasional interaction with other children and to ASL though observing his parents , Jim did not acquire either language until he was given an opportunity to interact with competent users.
Some researchers e. Stromswold , for instance, observes that. Most children say their first referential words at 9 to 15 months… and for the next months, children typically acquire single words fairly slowly until they have acquired approximately 50 words…. Once children have acquired 50 words, their vocabularies often increase rapidly….
At around 18 to 24 months, children learning morphologically impoverished languages such as English begin combining words to form two-word utterances…. Children acquiring such morphologically impoverished languages gradually begin to use sentences longer than two words; but for several months their speech often lacks phonetically unstressed functional category morphemes such as determiners, auxiliary verbs, and verbal and nominal inflectional endings …. This uniformity, Stromswold argues, indicates that the course of language acquisition is strongly predetermined by an innate program.
There are several points to be made in connection with this argument. First, many of the similarities that Stromswold mentions are not very remarkable: we do not need UG to explain why children typically though by no means always produce single word utterances before they produce word combinations, or why frequent content words are acquired earlier than function words. Secondly, the age ranges she gives e.
For example, the passive is acquired quite late by English speaking children—typically though by no means always—see below by age 4 or 5, and even later—by about 8—by Hebrew-speaking children Berman, Such differences are most obvious, and easiest to quantify, in lexical development. The comprehension vocabularies of normally developing children of the same age can differ tenfold or more Benedict, ; Goldfield and Reznick, ; Bates et al.
Children also differ with regard to the kinds of words they learn in the initial stages of lexical development. Last but not least, there are differences in the pattern of growth. Grammatical development is also far from uniform. While some children begin to combine words as early as 14 months, others do not do so until after their second birthday Bates et al. Some children are very cautious learners who avoid producing forms they are not sure about, while others are happy to generalize on the basis of very little evidence.
This results in large differences in error rates Maratsos, Peters argues that holistic children attempt to approximate the overall shape of the target utterance while analytic children concentrate on extracting and producing single words. Analytic children must learn how to combine words to form more complex units.
They start by putting together content words, producing telegraphic utterances such as there doggie or doggie eating. Later in development they discover that different classes of content words require specific function words and inflections nouns take determiners, verbs take auxiliaries, and tense inflections, etc.
Holistic children, in contrast, must segment their rote-learned phrases and determine how each part contributes to the meaning of the whole. Unlike analytic children, they sometimes produce grammatical morphemes very early in acquisition, embedded in larger unanalysed or only partially analyzed units; or they may use filler syllables as place-holders for grammatical morphemes. As their systems develop, the fillers gradually acquire more phonetic substance and an adult-like distribution, and eventually evolve into function words of the target language Peters and Menn, ; Peters, Thus, while both groups of children eventually acquire similar grammars, they get there by following different routes.
The claim that language acquisition is insensitive to environmental factors is simply incorrect, as demonstrated by the vast amount of research showing that both the amount and quality of input have a considerable effect on acquisition—particularly for vocabulary, but also for grammar e. There is no doubt that maturation also plays a very important role—but this could be due to the development of the cognitive prerequisites for language Slobin, , ; Tomasello, rather than the maturation of the language faculty.
Thus, again, the existence of maturational effects does not entail the existence of an innate UG: they are, at best, an argument for general innateness, not linguistic innateness. A number of researchers have pointed out that some individuals e. The existence of double dissociations in adults is not particularly informative with regard to the innateness issue, however, since modularization can be a result of development Paterson et al.
On the other hand, the developmental double dissociation between specific language impairment SLI and WS, is, on the face of it, much more convincing. There are, however, several reasons to be cautious in drawing conclusions from the observed dissociations.
Beam steering
Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. Two experiments, using the gazecontingent boundary paradigm Rayner, , show that semantic preview benefit can be observed in English when the preview and target are synonyms share the same or highly similar meaning, e. However, no semantic preview benefit was observed for semantic associates e.
The rise of Singlish
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What is AR, VR, MR, XR, 360?
In English, many past and present participles of verbs can be used as adjectives. Some of these examples may show the adjective use. The map distorted Greenland to appear four times its actual size. Synonyms contort. With this form of editing you can distort the shape of an object or piece of text.
The Dart type system
These example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word 'array. Send us feedback. Note: The forms arrai-, aroi- presumably represent generalizations of the tonic stem of areer. Middle English aray, array, arraye "preparation, arrangement, condition, line of soldiers, equipment, adornment," borrowed from Anglo-French arrai, arraie "order, arrangement, condition, ordered list of jurors, body of men, entourage, equipment," noun derivative of arraier "to order, array entry 1 ". Our team at The Usage has selected the best iron of
Word Meaning
Beam steering also spelled beamsteering or beam-steering is about changing the direction of the main lobe of a radiation pattern. In radio and radar systems, beam steering may be accomplished by switching the antenna elements or by changing the relative phases of the RF signals driving the elements. In recent days the beam steering is playing huge role in 5G communication because of quasi optic nature of 5G frequencies. In acoustics , beam steering is used to direct the audio from loudspeakers to a specific location in the listening area. This is done by changing the magnitude and phase of two or more loudspeakers installed in a column where the combined sound is added and cancelled at the required position. Commercially, this type of loudspeaker arrangement is known as a line array. This technique has been around for many years but since the emergence of modern DSP Digital Signal Processing technology there are now many commercially available products on the market.
Synonyms Provide Semantic Preview Benefit in English
Text is an extremely rich source of information. Each minute , people send hundreds of millions of new emails and text messages. But data scientists who want to glean meaning from all of that text data face a challenge: it is difficult to analyze and process because it exists in unstructured form. This is useful in a wide variety of data science applications: spam filtering, support tickets, social media analysis, contextual advertising, reviewing customer feedback, and more.
Word meaning has played a somewhat marginal role in early contemporary philosophy of language, which was primarily concerned with the structural features of sentence meaning and showed less interest in the nature of the word-level input to compositional processes. Nowadays, it is well-established that the study of word meaning is crucial to the inquiry into the fundamental properties of human language. This entry provides an overview of the way issues related to word meaning have been explored in analytic philosophy and a summary of relevant research on the subject in neighboring scientific domains. Though the main focus will be on philosophical problems, contributions from linguistics, psychology, neuroscience and artificial intelligence will also be considered, since research on word meaning is highly interdisciplinary. The notions of word and word meaning are problematic to pin down, and this is reflected in the difficulties one encounters in defining the basic terminology of lexical semantics.
Changes a continuously varying electrical signal into a stream of binary data. AAC Digital audio encoding format. The name stands for Advanced Audio Coding. The format provides slightly better audio quality than the MP3 format. File extensions in use for AAC files include. AAC is used on all Apple devices including iTunes downloads , and was developed in
Is the language faculty non linguistic? View all 10 Articles. Universal Grammar UG is a suspect concept. There is little agreement on what exactly is in it; and the empirical evidence for it is very weak.
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