Prime number digit distribution amplifier
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- Analysis & number theory
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- Memristive GAN in Analog
Analysis & number theory
There are still no good quantitative methods to be applied in psychiatric diagnosis. The interview is still the main and most important tool in the psychiatrist work. This paper presents the results of electroencephalographic research with the subjects of a group of 30 patients with psychiatric disorders compared to the control group of healthy volunteers.
All subjects were solving working memory task. The digit-span working memory task test was chosen as one of the most popular tasks given to subjects with cognitive dysfunctions, especially for the patients with panic disorders, depression including the depressive phase of bipolar disorder , phobias, and schizophrenia. Having such cohort of patients some results for the subjects with insomnia and Asperger syndrome are also presented.
The cortical activity of their brains was registered by the dense array EEG amplifier. The most active Brodmann Areas are indicated. Methodology for mapping the brain and research protocol are presented. The first results indicate that the presented technique can be useful in finding psychiatric disorder neurophysiological biomarkers. The first attempts were made to associate hyperactivity of selected Brodmann Areas with particular disorders. Dense array electroencephalographic amplifiers can be considered as a reasonable alternative for magnetic resonance imaging MRI thanks to their better temporal resolution Tohka and Ruotsalainen, and application of algorithms like standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography sLORETA Pascual-Marqui et al.
Such techniques of imaging are widely used in laboratories of experimental psychology and more and more often for research in neuroscience. What is more—the electroencephalography EEG is much cheaper than other methods, practically non-invasive and the subject or patient can participate in the experiment without any special requirements Tohka and Ruotsalainen, Electroencephalographic techniques find applications in adult psychiatry Sand et al. Together with the development of neurocomputing, neuroinformatics and artificial intelligence a lot of new tools and possibilities appeared and made their use possible for a wide range of classification tasks in biomedical engineering Ogiela et al.
The computational approach can explain some behavior characteristic of complex systems Wojcik et al. In current psychiatry, the interview is still a main tool for diagnosis. This is the clinical interview that in most cases determines the psychiatrist to choose the optimal method of treatment. So it is easy to imagine that sometimes the treatment is not as optimal as it should be. As far as the EEG-based diagnosis support for psychiatry is concerned some works were presented by John in the late eighties John et al.
There are different types of representation for EEG activity but one of the oldest and most popular is its characteristic in frequency bands that describe rhythmical nature of its waves.
The aim of the research presented in this paper was to prepare the protocol and methodology for mapping the brain in five bands of EEG spectrum using the sLORETA algorithms. Source localization, among other algorithms, seems to be one of the most appropriate approaches for finding biomarkers in EEG signals. The method used in a wide range of research—from neurodegenerativie diseases Wu et al.
This is the initial stage of the research and this technique is believed to be crucial for finding psychiatric disorder neurophysiological biomarkers. For this contribution the brain activity of a group of 30 patients with selected psychiatric disorders was measured using channel dense array EEG.
These results were compared with those obtained for the participants of a control group both doing working memory span task. In addition, there was used the Geodesic Photogrammetry System GPS which owing to 11 cameras put in its corners makes a model of subject brain based on its calculated size, proportion and shape and then puts all computed activity results on this model with very good accuracy.
The amplifier works with the Net Station 4. The gaze calibration, eye blinks and saccades elimination are obtained owing to the application of eye-tracking system operated by SmartEye 5. Figure 1. The cohort of 30 patients, 21 males and 9 females avg.
They were not treated earlier and participated in the experiment before taking the first dose of suggested medications. The results were compared with those of the participants from the control group of 30 healthy volunteers, males avg. One of the tests that are quite often used in experimental psychology is the digit-span task Jones and Macken, There is a handful of literature reviews and our own studies which show that different cognitive functions in patients with psychiatric disorders are not as effective as among healthy representatives of populations Trivedi, People with mental disorders often suffer from working memory dysfunctions and the digit-span task is used then to measure their level.
The digit-span task is very popular in the investigations of subjects with phobias, panic disorders, depression including the depressive phase of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia Alves et al. It was natural that to examine the influence of Asperger syndrome and insomnia on working memory parameters — as the rest of t patients from our cohort suffered from these disorders.
The experiment gives sets of 6 trials on a set of digits that starts with a length of 3 and goes up or down depending on subject's performance more than 3 correct makes the number of digits increase, less than 2 makes it decrease. The longest sequence of digits is 8. There are 5 sequences of digits in each trial. Then using an appropriate band filtering tool provided by the Net Station software, the signal to analysis in the GeoSource see Figures 2 , 3 was prepared. After applying the sLORETA algorithm to the signal preprocessed in the above mentioned it was possible to indicate precisely the Brodmann Area BA of brain cortex that was most active during the experiment in particular subjects.
Figure 2. Figure 3. Its implication is that not only the variance of the noise in the EEG measured signal is taken into account but also that the biological variance in the actual signal is considered Goldenholz et al.
This biological variance is taken as independently and uniformly distributed across the brain which results in a linear imaging localization technique having exact, zero-localization error Goldenholz et al.
The procedure of estimating the most active BAs was as follows: after the signal acquisition, the subject was photographed using 11 cameras in the GPS. Then the GeoSource software calculated the activity of particular BAs in nanoamperes varying in time and this varying activity together with its corresponding BAa were saved in the appropriate list.
Then our scripts chose the activity that was the highest in a given short interval of time. There was considered not only the maximum value of the electrical current of a given BA in a given interval but also the time in the range of the interval in which this activity was maintained. Thus, in other words, the maximum activity was equivalent to the electric charge that flew through the given area.
Measuring the electric charge flowing thorough the selected BA can shed some light on dynamic activity analysis and seems to be better than typical amperage-based interpretations. Together with the frequency band analysis it creates a kind of quantitativeness in the quantitative analysis of biomedical signal source localization based analysis.
The time interval in which the BA activity was calculated was set to 5 ms and there was chosen ms segmentation each segment starting with the stimuli for signal averaging. BA1, BA2, and BA3 were eliminated from our considerations as they are part of Primary Somatosensory Cortex S1 which must have been highly active and in fact reported by our algorithms because of the subject's fingertips contact with the keyboard during the experiment.
The scheme of the methodology and research protocol are presented in Figure 4. Figure 4. All scripts used for preprocessing data in Net Station and postprocessing in GeoSource are listed.
Participation of the subject in the experiment begins when the Sensor Net is put on and ends when it is taken off. All data is collected by the Mac Pro workstation which is the central part of the lab.
The software used to conduct discussed experiments was provided by EGI. In the Net Station package there are all scripts shown in Figure 4 implemented as the so-called Waveform Tools.
The details of algorithms used in the preprocessing and postprocessing phases of experiment are described in detail in Electrical Geodesics Some EEG biomarkers are assumed to appear and leave a kind of particular disorder fingerprint in the selected EEG band.
In addition alpha, beta, and theta bands are important for as above computing the engagement index Lubar et al. The results for the patients are presented in Table 1 and for the control group in Table 2.
Table 1. Most active BA in particular subjects of patients group during the digit-span task experiment in the alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and theta EEG bands. Table 2. The most active BA in particular subjects of control group during the digit-span task experiment in the alpha, beta, gamma, delta and theta EEG bands.
Indeed, as one can see in Tables 1 , 2 it was possible to indicate the Brodmann Areas that were most active in each of five bands during the working memory task completed by all subjects of the experiment. In the subjects where the eliminated S1 was the only high active part of the cortex, S1 was put in both tables.
In Table 3 , the names of the anatomical brain structures of the most active BA mentioned in text are presented. Table 3. The names of the anatomical brain structures of the most active BA mentioned in text. In Table 1 one can see that among the largest subset of patients group, 12 suffered from F41—Panic disorders and 5 from F At present it is, of course, impossible to talk about the psychiatric atlas of the human brain having such a small trial and so large group of disorders defined in ICD However, one can read from Table 1 that when compared to the control group in Table 3 :.
Please note that BA33 is also very active in the bipolar affective patients F Similarly, BA45 is associated with semantic tasks and working memory Buckner, ; Gabrieli et al. Overactive BA9 in both patients and control groups is engaged in management of cognitive processes Elliott, , including working memory Barbey et al.
This supports the evidence for our properly working experimental set-up. It is interesting that also BA27 associated with the sense of smell Howard et al. It may be also interesting to specify the role of auditory cortex hyperactivity among some patients and interesting EEG experiments were presented e. We have proposed the research protocol and methodology for investigation of working memory in patients with selected psychiatric disorders. The sLORETA algorithms and source localization were chosen to find highly active areas of brain cortex during the experimental task.
Profound analysis of cortical activity in five EEG frequency bands allows to us look into the brain dynamics in different spectral ways just as we are used to looking at the Universe and its stars. Having so many mental disorders defined in ICD one can imagine the size and complexity of the job that must be done to build a good atlas for psychiatrists. Designing new experiments the attempt will me made to choose the most appropriate tests for particular disorders and apply other variations of sLORETA described in Nidal and Malik Building appropriate statistical groups of patients with a given disorder, untreated, in similar age ranges and distinguished for genders seems to be a task for many years of research.
However, these first results make us hope that it is really possible to find association of selected Brodmann Areas activity with psychiatric disorders. As it was mentioned above—we will need a huge number of untreated patients suffering from each of disorders that we want to map and if we are right—finally it will lead to the creation of Atlas which can throw lights on modern psychiatry.
Collecting the above mentioned data is also a great challenge for current neuroinformatics Bigdely-Shamlo et al. Finding biomarkers for a wide range of psychiatric patients with completely different symptoms and clinical characteristics is a challenging task.
The aim of this paper was not, however, to hypothesize dysfunctions of some parts of the brain in particular disorders but to show a new way in which this can be accomplished. In the group of 30 there were representatives of 8 different diagnoses.
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The frequency response of the RD is optimized exclusively for use with subwoofers. The Prime RD subwoofer amplifier offers high efficiency through the implementation of its Class-D circuitry while delivering rich, full bass to any system. This car amplifier is optimized for subwoofers with the implementation of an infrasonic filter to keep those ultra-low inaudible bass notes from damaging your subwoofer system. High efficiency amplifier design that reduces current consumption from the charging system. These guidelines mean your amplifier's Contact the Authorized Rockford Fosgate Dealer you purchased this product from. If you need further assistance, call for Rockford Customer Service. You are responsible for shipment of product to Rockford. Prior to requesting an RA, try to diagnose the failure. Many products we receive are sent back with No Trouble Found, usually due to incorrect installation.
Neuromorphic computing with multi-memristive synapses
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Divide space evenly calculator
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Imaginary Numbers May Be Essential for Describing Reality
Learning and Memory View all 59 Articles. Relatively little attention has been paid to the neural basis of superior memory despite its potential in providing important insight into efforts to improve memory in the general population or to offset age-related cognitive decline. The current study reports a rare opportunity to reproduce and isolate specific neural activities directly associated with exceptional memory. To capture the brain processes responsible for superior memory, we returned to a laboratory task and analytic approach used to explore the nature of exceptional memory, namely, digit-span task combined with verbal protocol analysis. Protocol analysis allowed us to identify direct behavioral indices of idiosyncratic encoding processes underlying the superior memory performance.
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Memristive GAN in Analog
Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon request. Neuromorphic computing has emerged as a promising avenue towards building the next generation of intelligent computing systems. It has been proposed that memristive devices, which exhibit history-dependent conductivity modulation, could efficiently represent the synaptic weights in artificial neural networks. However, precise modulation of the device conductance over a wide dynamic range, necessary to maintain high network accuracy, is proving to be challenging. To address this, we present a multi-memristive synaptic architecture with an efficient global counter-based arbitration scheme.
Questions based on various concepts of number theory and different types of number are quite frequently asked in programming contests. In this article, we discuss some famous facts and algorithms:. Recent Articles on Modular Arithmetic! Recent Articles on Mathematical Algorithms!
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