Asd in mini statement speakers
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Technology and Autism
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Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. Who Is He? Petra Hendriks. A short summary of this paper. In the present study we investigate whether speakers take the listener into account or whether they base their referential choices solely on their OPEN ACCESS own representation of the discourse.
Further- Who Is He? We found support Received: August 6, for the view that speakers take the listener into account when choosing a referring expres- Accepted: June 14, sion: Theory of Mind was related to referential choice only at those moments when speakers could not solely base their choice on their own discourse representation to be understood.
This is an open discourse. Furthermore, we found that TD children as well as children with ASD and chil- access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits dren with ADHD took the listener into account in their choice of referring expression. In addi- unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any tion, children with ADHD were less specific than TD children in contexts with more than one medium, provided the original author and source are referent.
The previously observed problems with referential choice in children with ASD credited. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or One of the most important functions of language is reference.
When people communicate, preparation of the manuscript. To refer to a particular referent, speakers have to choose Competing Interests: The authors have declared how specific they wish to be in their use of a referring expression.
For instance, to refer to Rem- that no competing interests exist. The less specific a referring expres- sion is, the more ambiguous the expression usually is. Pronouns in particular can have a wide range of possible interpretations and thus can be misunderstood by the listener. They generally avoid pronouns in situations in which the use of a pro- noun may result in a non-intended interpretation. In contrast, young typically developing TD children often show difficulties with the appropriate choice of referring expression.
Up to the age of ten, they tend to overuse pronouns, leading to ambiguity for the listener [2—5]. Why do young TD children and children with neurodeve- lopmental disorders have difficulties in their choice of referring expression, and, more gener- ally, which linguistic and cognitive skills are needed to come to a correct decision about which form to use?
Linguistic approaches to the choice of referring expressions Two linguistic approaches to modeling the choice of referring expressions have been proposed: the discourse-based approach e. The dis- course-based approach assumes that speakers base their choices on the properties of the dis- course. Referents that are highly accessible in the linguistic discourse are referred to with less specific forms, while less accessible referents are referred to with more specific forms.
Accessi- bility is thought to depend on givenness whether a referent is new or already referred to earlier in the discourse; e. Speakers use pronouns more often for given referents high accessibility than for new referents low accessibility. Likewise, speakers tend to use a pronoun more often when a referent has recently been mentioned, when referring to characters in subject position, and when a referent is the first-mentioned referent.
When the referent is less accessible, more specific forms such as full noun phrases NPs are used. Thus, according to the discourse- based approach, the speaker chooses a referential form on the basis of the accessibility of the referent in the discourse and does not take the listener into account.
Speakers need to estimate how the form they use will be interpreted by the listener. This can be explained in pragmatic terms or in grammatical terms. These authors state that speakers prefer to use pronouns, but take into account the grammatical perspective of the listener to check whether the listener will be able to infer the correct referent.
If not, adult speakers will use a more explicit form, such as a full NP. Thus, in the pragmatic as well as the grammatical account, speakers are assumed to have a preference for using short and therefore less informative expressions. This only results in communicative success if they take into account the listener, who requires expressions that are sufficiently specific to be able to identify the intended referent.
Some studies found that speakers provide more information when the intended referent may be hard to identify for the listener, such as when several referents are present in the discourse [17]. In such situations, speakers use more explicit referential expres- sions than when only one referent is present, suggesting that they take into account their listen- ers.
In contrast, other studies found that speakers sometimes do not provide as much information as they could. For example, speakers do not consistently avoid temporary ambigui- ties in their syntactic choices [18,19], thus causing difficulties in interpretation for their listeners.
This seems to indicate that speakers do not consistently take into account their listeners. It has been suggested that for a correct represen- tation of the discourse sufficient working memory capacity is needed [20,21]. For listener- oriented choices, Theory of Mind processes are expected to be necessary [7,9]. Although previous studies suggested that these cognitive mechanisms may be involved, the direct relation between these mechanisms and the choice of referring expression has not been investigated so far.
The relation between the choice of referring expressions and Theory of Mind, inhibition and working memory at different moments in the discourse can give us insights in whether and when speakers take into account their listeners.
By including children with ASD and ADHD in our study, we attempt to maximize the variation in performance regarding these cognitive mechanisms and relate this variation to the choice between potentially ambiguous pronouns and unambiguous full NPs at various moments in the discourse. Studies on the choice of referring expressions of individuals with ASD thus far have shown mixed results: overspecification use of full NPs in situations in which pronouns would suit [7,31], underspecification use of pronouns in situations in which this would lead to unclear or unintended reference [31—33] and the choice of similar forms as in TD children [7,34] have all been reported.
This variation in results may be partly caused by the fact that most studies have used narratives based on wordless picture books [31,32,34] or cartoons [7].
Although these narratives are more structured than free conversation in, for example, a play setting such as in [33] , they still have the disadvantage that the stories are relatively long and eventful. Since the choice of referring expression highly depends on the previous discourse, this may cause difficulties in comparing the narratives of these children to the narratives of TD chil- dren and consequently in comparing their choices of referring expression.
Hence, it is impor- tant to keep the discourse as similar as possible across children. Methodological approach and hypotheses In narratives such as in [7,31,32,34] , it is hard to determine the exact moments at which speakers may need to take into account their listeners. Three moments are distinguished: 1 Introduction of new referents; 2 Maintenance of reference; and 3 Reintroduction of a previously mentioned referent that is not the discourse topic at that moment we use the term discourse topic to refer to the most prominent referent at a certain moment in the discourse.
The choice of referring expression is expected to vary during these three particular points in discourse. Furthermore, we expect that the need to take the listener into account also varies across these discourse moments. Consequently we predict that Theory of Mind, inhibition and working memory have different effects on referential choice at these three discourse moments.
At the first discourse moment, when new referents are introduced, generally full NPs are used. Since the referents are new in discourse, no previous activation is expected. Given that sufficient working memory is only needed to keep referents activated and hence accessible [20], we hypothesize that working memory is not related to the choice of referring expression to introduce new characters.
Therefore we do not expect associations between the choice of referring expression and Theory of Mind or inhibition. In addition, children with ASD and children with ADHD are not expected to have difficulties with the appropriate choice of referential expressions at the introduction moments, as it is not necessary at this moment in the discourse to take the other person's per- spective or to keep referents activated.
These may be pronouns if the character is highly prominent. However, when two characters are present in the discourse, more full NPs are expected to be used to maintain reference compared to when only one character is present [4,17]. Consequently, we expect working memory but not Theory of Mind to be related to the choice of referring expression during the maintenance of reference in the discourse. At the third discourse moment, when a speaker reintroduces a character that has been men- tioned before but is no longer the topic of the discourse, the situation is different.
If a speaker were to use a pronoun, this would be inter- preted as referring to the current topic instead of to the character that is reintroduced. There- fore, to reintroduce a character after a topic shift to another character, speakers need to take the listener into account. We therefore predict Theory of Mind and inhibition to be associated with the choice of referring expression when reintroducing a referent.
Working memory is also predicted to be associated with the choice of referring expressions, since speakers should keep track of the accessibility of the discourse referents. Our experiment is set up in such a way that we can predict from the properties of the dis- course when speakers must consider the needs of the listener. The stories are designed in such a way that a narrative structure is elicited that includes the three discourse moments discussed above: the stories start with only one character; halfway through the story a topic shift is elicited from this first character to a second character; at the end of the story a second topic shift is elic- ited from this second character back to the first character.
Previous studies using these story books showed that this narrative structure could be successfully elicited in children from age 4 on [4,16]. Because of their problems with Theory of Mind, inhibition and working memory, we expect children with ASD and children with ADHD to show difficulties with the appropriate choice of referring expression when maintaining reference and when reintroducing a referent after a topic shift.
The present study will provide a detailed examination of the choice of refer- ring expression and the relation with cognitive factors in children with ASD or ADHD and TD children. This study is the first to investigate the choice of referring expression in TD children, children with ASD and children with ADHD at a detailed level, allowing us to distinguish between discourse-based and listener-based choices.
Risi et al. Three children from the ASD group were excluded from further analysis because they did not meet the criteria on either instrument, leaving 48 children in the ASD group. Four of them already scored above the cut-off for ADHD based on parent information alone. The remaining two children scored 1 point below the cut-off for ADHD. Children were recruited between diagnosis and their appointment with the psychiatrist to con- sider the potential start of medication use.
Therefore, all children were free of psychostimulant medication at the day of testing. Furthermore they did not have any history of neurological or psychiatric problems. Materials Reference production task. We used the reference production task from Hendriks et al. Each picture was on a separate page. The four storybooks were constructed in the same way Fig 1 : in the first two pictures, one character was present, to prompt the introduc- tion of a new character and the maintained reference to this character.
We expected partici- pants to introduce this character with a full NP e. To maintain reference to this character, we expected participants to mainly use pronouns. In the third pic- ture a second character entered the story. In the fourth and fifth pictures, this character Fig 1. Example of storybook. Example of a storybook of the Reference Production Task. Each picture was shown on a separate page. We expected that the second character would be introduced with a full NP.
We expected participants to use either a pronoun or a full NP to maintain reference to this second character [4,17].
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Active sound design
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