Nooksack tribes genesis ii speakers
Chinook Jargon Chinuk Wawa or Chinook Wawa , also known simply as Chinook or Jargon is a language originating as a pidgin trade language in the Pacific Northwest , and spreading during the 19th century from the lower Columbia River , first to other areas in modern Oregon and Washington , then British Columbia and parts of Alaska , Northern California , Idaho and Montana while sometimes taking on characteristics of a creole language. Many words from Chinook Jargon remain in common use in the Western United States and British Columbia today and it has been described as part of a multicultural heritage shared by the modern inhabitants of the Pacific Northwest. The total number of Jargon words in published lexicons numbered only in the hundreds, and so it was easy to learn. Most books written in English still use the term Chinook Jargon, but some linguists working with the preservation of a creolized form of the language used in Grand Ronde, Oregon , prefer the term Chinuk Wawa with the spelling 'Chinuk' instead of 'Chinook'.
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The ethnographic and ethnohistorical data relating specifically to the Chilliwack are very limited. Accordingly the data compiled in this chapter are of two kinds. They include such ethnographic and ethnohistorical materials on the Chilliwack as are available and, to supplement these, data on the linguistically and culturally related tribes of the Upper Stalo cluster see Figure The ethnographic information relating to the Chilliwack is drawn principally from Wilson Duff who in and gathered a small amount of traditional life-pattern data from Chilliwack informants.
Some additional Chilliwack information comes from Franz Boas who carried out a brief period of field research among the neighboring Chehalis in , from Charles Hill-Tout , a who worked with Upper Stalo groups, including the Chilliwack, in the s and early s; and from Marian Smith , , , a, b, , , who in the s and s studied the Chilliwack and nearby Upper Stalo tribes.
Nevertheless, our knowledge of the aboriginal and early postcontact life style of the Chilliwack is singularly meager. Because the Upper Stalo tribal cluster as a whole is considered by Duff to have possessed a fundamentally similar life mode, whatever the variations in detail, it appears legitimate to generalize with caution to the Chilliwack, where information concerning this group is lacking or seemingly faulty, from other Upper Stalo groups.
Here of particular value are Duff's much more comprehensive and detailed field-derived materials on the native lifeways of the Tail in particular, the uprivermost of the Upper Stalo tribes. Limited information to check and complement Duff's data are provided by Boas' Chehalis study. The ethnohistorical data are taken primarily from Charles Wilson , who, as a member of the British Boundary Commission, lived for some months in in the Chilliwack country and nearby.
Specific data on the Chilliwack and on the natural history of their area -- including their river, Chilliwack Lake, and Cultus Lake -- are included in Wilson's field records. These data represent, so far as I am aware, the earliest documentation relating to the tribe. Information relating to several Upper Stalo villages -- but to none of the Chilliwack -- is reported in the journal of Simon Fraser , , who with his exploring party paddled down the Fraser River and then back up in the summer of Additional bits of Upper Stalo cultural data are also drawn from several minor sources as indicated in the pages that follow.
As revealed at various points in this chapter, this procedure of placing the Chilliwack data, however limited, in the larger Upper Stalo cultural context yields one special reward: it provides strong, though palpably incomplete, evidence that the Chilliwack were in some ways an atypical Upper Stalo people.
In part, these divergent lifeways were plainly the consequence of the group's unique, pre- and early postcontact, side-valley geographical location. In part, they may have been a residue of a pre-White history that differed importantly from that of their Upper Stalo neighbors.
In this section are briefly discussed the early postcontact history of the Chilliwack, the terms used in the past to designate the tribe, the territory it claimed and over which its members roamed in the pursuit of their life plan, its linguistic and cultural affiliations, the meager demographic data available for the group, and the physical characteristics of the people as these are known. The Fraser Valley in the neighborhood of the Chilliwack homeland was first explored by Simon Fraser's party in late May and early June, Data to support this assumption, however, have yet to be located.
In Fort Langley was established by the Hudson's Bay Company on the south bank of the Fraser about halfway between the Chilliwack River and the mouth of the Fraser to serve as the trading center for the area. In George Simpson of the Company ran the Fraser River from the Thompson River mouth to the sea, only to discover that this was too dangerous a route for the fur trade.
Regrettably his detailed account of this journey remains unpublished. December of this same year found a party from the fort ascending the Fraser and entering "the Chul-Whoo-Yook [Chilliwack]," but, after about 10 miles on the stream, having to turn back because of the strong current. It reported seeing cached canoes but no natives. Duff , , 56; Fraser , ; Phillips ; Rich ; Wilson fn. Although at least the more downriver Upper Stalo already "knew the sign of the cross and a few simple hymns," the first organized missionary activity in the region was undertaken in the early s by Roman Catholic priests using Fort Langley as their base Duff ; Lempfrit The extent to which members of the Chilliwack tribe were contacted is uncertain.
In May, , a Fort Langley group went up the Fraser to the Chilliwack to establish a salmon fishery on its banks, a fact that argues for the importance of the Chilliwack as a salmon stream. Nelson ; Duff ; Lempfrit Their presence in Upper Stalo country initiated extensive contact between the native groups of this area and Whites, a contact in which the Chilliwack must have participated to some degree. Smith The summer of saw a rush of gold prospectors and miners ascending the Fraser to the newly discovered fields on the riverbanks and bars between Forts Hope and Yale and even into the region above the canyon.
Attracted by the lure of gold, many Indians turned to hunting the metal and, neglecting to store fish and roots, starved during the following winter.
By mid-winter the gold fever had largely subsided owing to the intense cold and the lack of supplies. While the Chilliwack and their territory were evidently not directly involved in these activities, they could hardly have wholly escaped their effects. Mayne , , 66; Smith In the British Boundary Commission surveyed the international border in the Chilliwack territory and its vicinity. Its various supply and surveying parties that camped through the period in the Chilliwack region and constantly criss-crossed it during these years employed local Indians in various humble capacities, surely Chilliwack among them.
Wilson , These very close contacts must have influenced the native life style, in some cases on a permanent basis, but the records are silent on these points. Owing to time constraints, no effort has been made to review historical material after for whatever ethnographic scraps it may contain bearing on traditional Chilliwack life patterns.
To the degree that the Chilliwack have been distinguished in the ethnographic and historic literature from the other Halkomelem Cowichan tribes, they have, with one single exception so far as I am aware, been referred to as the Chilliwack or some obvious variant thereof. The only alternative designation is that recorded by Wilson in his phrase "the 'Chilukweyuk,' or 'Squahalitch'. To understand the Chilliwack data as well as references to Sumas Lake, Chilliwack River, and Vedder River in the material that follows, a few geographic facts, drawn from Duff and other sources, must be comprehended.
A low bog lay between the Chilliwack and the Fraser, though it gradually grew firmer as time passed. Duff ; Fraser Meandering across the low plain, it reached the Fraser just west of the present city of Chilliwack. The water from Sumas Lake found its way to the Fraser by its own small stream. Duff , Duff These data reveal how essential it is to note the time period in question when the ethnographic and especially historical data refer to the lower Chilliwack River and to the people and villages along it.
The borders of the traditional Chilliwack home country were defined in the Indians' mind with considerable precision, reflecting a relatively highly developed concept of territorial ownership not present among all Upper Stalo tribes. According to Duff :. The [Chilliwack] tribe held a small stretch of the south side of the Fraser between the mouth of the Chilliwack River and l x we, a village half-way between Chilliwack and Sumas Mountains. From here the boundary ran due south, skirting the east side of Sumas Lake, to Maple Falls on the Nooksack, thence east along the north fork of the Nooksack and across the mountains to Chilliwack Lake.
From the lake it ran west again to encompass the valley of the Chilliwack and that part of the Fraser Valley south of a line joining Elk Creek falls with the mouth of the Chilliwack River. Figure Traditional territory of Chilliwack and neighboring groups as defined by Duff map 1, modified. Chilliwack River course is shown approximately as in pre and late periods.
I differentiate between the Stalo group and nearby non-Stalo tribes; also between Upper and Lower Stalo as somewhat fuzzily distinguished by Duff. These boundaries are, in most respects, as close to the facts as we are likely to get. When they are drawn slightly differently by other ethnographers, this is largely because, without special interest in them, they plot them more loosely. Still Duff's data call for several comments.
Most important for the present study is the fact that Duff's southeastern tribal line places the northwesternmost corner of the North Cascades Park squarely within old Chilliwack territory. Linguistic and Cultural Affiliation. To comprehend their cultural position in relation to their tribal neighbors and the ways in which they were similar to and different from them in their life patterns, the Chilliwack must be viewed in the context of the larger lower Fraser region.
In this segment of the Pacific Northwest linguistic and cultural relationships were intimately intertwined. It is convenient, therefore, to discuss the two together.
Careful linguistic reconstruction indicates that some time in the distant past the language family now known as Salishan developed in a riverine, forested valley environment west of the Cascades, perhaps even in the lower Fraser country itself or not far away. About 3, years ago it spread up the Fraser Valley and over the Cascades into the Plateau.
This movement, in time, split the family into its two major units, a Coastal and an Interior division. The Coastal group and, of course, Interior likewise carried forward the normal process of language change through time when speakers are isolated to some extent by distance or other contact barriers. It continued to divide, ultimately to produce in the Strait of Georgia area of southeastern Vancouver Island, the nearby Fraser Valley, and the islands in-between, the language now customarily termed Halkomelem, though Cowichan, Nanaimo-group, and still other designations have been used for this unit.
As time passed, Halkomelem spread up the Fraser River to the mouth of Fraser Canyon, gradually separating into a number of mutually intelligible dialects that in the late prehistoric and postcontact period clustered into three dialect groups: Nanaimo and Cowichan, both on the southeastern corner of Vancouver Island, and Stalo in the lower Fraser Valley from Yale downstream to the river delta and a small area about the Fraser mouth Figure Chilliwack is one of the several Stalo tribes, all possessing a common language and cultural base but not a political unity.
Boas ; Duff ; Dyen ; Elmendorf and Suttles ; Fraser ; Hill-Tout , ; Mayne , , ; Smith a, , ; Suttles ; Suttles and Elmendorf ; Swadesh , , , ; Teit ; Thompson Principal mainland Halkomelem dialect communities and neighboring non-Halkomelem Salishan languages Elmendorf and Suttles , slightly modified.
Shown are Halkomelem boundaries with Skagit and Lower Thompson, tribes also considered in this report. Boundaries are approximate. These Fraser River tribes -- the Stalo -- formed a single dialect chain, each population entity differing somewhat in speech -- apparently also to some degree in culture -- from its neighbors above and below in the river valley, with those at the upstream and downriver ends of the chain being notably different.
In spite of this linguistic and cultural chain structure, one sharper than normal break occurred in this Stalo sequence. This break was across the Fraser Valley either just below the Chilliwack and Sumas or possibly a bit farther downriver. The six small tribes above this line are termed by Duff the "Upper Stalo" -- as opposed to the "Lower Stalo" below -- a useful designation that will be followed in this present study.
Duff ,; Elmendorf and Suttles , Among the various Coastal Salishan languages known at the time of first White contact, which were most closely related to Halkomelem?
Although there have been slightly differing formulations by linguists in the past, the kinship seems to be particularly close with Squamish, Nooksack, and Straits Salish Lkungen, Lkungeneng , this last group including Lummi, Songish, Samish, KIallam, and other coastal and island dialects south of the Fraser delta and on the southeastern point of Vancouver Island. Dyen , ; Elmendorf and Suttles ; Swadesh , In linguistic terms, the Chilliwack are especially intriguing as a Stalo tribe.
There is some evidence that as recently as the late s the group and perhaps also the Cultus Lake people may have spoken a different dialect, even a different language than that of more recent years. Perhaps it was most akin to Nooksack of the upper Nooksack Valley, though here the evidence is not fully convincing. Such a kinship, however, would not be out of the question since the Nooksack territory was contiguous to that of the Chilliwack on the southwest Figures , , the groups evidently saw a good deal of each other, and both were upriver peoples sharing rather similar wooded valley econiches.
It has already been noted that, although unintelligible to Stalo, Nooksack was among those Coastal Salishan languages most closely related to Halkomelem. Boas ; Duff , 12, 39, 43; Hill-Tout , , b; Smith a, ; Suttles ; Swadesh , , fn. The size of the Chilliwack population in late protohistoric times is unknown, although, as Hill-Tout remarks, they appear never to have been "a populous tribe.
In , in a Stalo-wide census by Hudson's Bay traders at Fort Langley, the "Chilsonook" were counted at persons. About the Chilliwack population was estimated by Wilson at While characterizing the Fort Langley head-count for the various Fraser River tribelets as in general "quite remarkable in its accuracy and detail," Duff believes its Chilliwack figure to be too low, "especially since the census sets the Chilliwack population at On the other hand, as Duff , likewise remarks, probably some of the apparent increase reported in is the consequence of "the inclusion of some Pilalt," the tribelet immediately upriver from the Chilliwack.
Before the s and especially prior to , the Chilliwack numbers must have been appreciably greater, for a terrible smallpox scourge ravaged the region about , killing, according to Jenness n.
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About eight fluent speakers die each month, and only a handful of people under the age of 40 are fluent. Around speakers of the Eastern also referred to as the Middle or Kituwah dialect remain in North Carolina and language preservation efforts include the New Kituwah Academy , a bilingual immersion school. The Cherokee Immersion School Tsalagi Tsunadeloquasdi in Tahlequah serves children in federally recognized tribes from pre-school up to grade 6. Cherokee is polysynthetic , [16] the only Southern Iroquoian language, [17] and it uses a unique syllabary writing system. Extensive documentation of the language exists, as it is the indigenous language of North America in which the most literature has been published. Cherokee is an Iroquoian language , and the only Southern Iroquoian language spoken today. Linguists believe that the Cherokee people migrated to the southeast from the Great Lakes region [ citation needed ] about three thousand years ago, bringing with them their language.
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‘It’s a proud day for the Samish’
As began, I boarded a plane for the first time in a year. In , I spent more time outside of Bellingham than I did in it. Throughout my travels in Jordan, France and Tunisia, I had many transformative experiences that will influence my teaching and research for years to come. I spent the first half of the year in Amman, teaching in the American Studies graduate program at the University of Jordan as a Fulbright scholar. In addition to my teaching duties, I gave a public talk on my research at the University of Jordan, and I guest lectured in three classes in the journalism program at Yarmouk University in Irbid. At Yarmouk, I was able to reconnect with a friend and colleague from my doctoral studies at Michigan State University, Naheda Makhadmeh, who is now the chair of the journalism department there.
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By Lisa Morehouse November 29, The Yurok tribe has fished for salmon in the Klamath River for centuries. Salmon is essential to Yurok ceremonies, for food, and for income. But this fall, the number of Chinook swimming up the Klamath, in the Pacific Northwest, was the lowest on record, threatening the tribe's entire culture and way of life.
It was here, at Commercial Ave. The council offices were here at one time, as was Samish Longhouse Preschool. That was when the Samish Nation was fighting to re-establish its government-to-government relationship with the United States; a clerical error in the late s had left the Samish Nation off a list of federally recognized tribes. Recognition came again in
The Salish language family consists of twenty-three languages spoken in southwestern Canada and the northwestern United States. There are two outlier languages: Bella Coola in British Columbia is the northernmost, and Tillamook in Oregon is the southernmost. The Central Salish languages form a chain of ten languages along the Salish Sea. The four Tsamosan languages are located along the coast of the state of Washington. This branch is divided into Northern and Southern Interior subbranches.
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