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Alternate titles: AC transformer, alternating-current transformer

By The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica • Last Updated: Aug 22, 2022 • Edit History

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transformer, device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-current circuit to one or more other circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage. Transformers are employed for widely varying purposes; e.g., to reduce the voltage of conventional power circuits to operate low-voltage devices, such as doorbells and toy electric trains, and to raise the voltage from electric generators so that electric power can be transmitted over long distances.

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Nikola TeslaRelated Topics: air-core transformer isolation transformer impedance-matching transformer turns ratio iron-core transformer

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Transformers change voltage through electromagnetic induction; i.e., as the magnetic lines of force (flux lines) build up and collapse with the changes in current passing through the primary coil, current is induced in another coil, called the secondary. The secondary voltage is calculated by multiplying the primary voltage by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary coil to the number of turns in the primary coil, a quantity called the turns ratio.



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Air-core transformers are designed to transfer radio-frequency currents—i.e., the currents used for radio transmission; they consist of two or more coils wound around a solid insulating substance or on an insulating coil form. Iron-core transformers serve analogous functions in the audio-frequency range.

Impedance-matching transformers are used to match the impedance of a source and that of its load, for most efficient transfer of energy. Isolation transformers are usually employed for reasons of safety to isolate a piece of equipment from the source of power.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Adam Augustyn.

building-integrated photovoltaics

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building-integrated photovoltaics

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Alternate titles: BIPVs

By Daniel Burgess • Edit History

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building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs), photovoltaic cells and thin-film solar cells that are integral components of a building. Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs) simultaneously serve conventional structural functions—as exteriors, windows, or rooftops—while also generating electricity. They generally are superior to photovoltaic arrays (solar arrays) that are mounted on existing building surfaces, since they maximize the surface area used to generate solar power. BIPVs provide an ancillary or even principal source of electrical power, greatly reducing or even eliminating the building’s need for power from the electrical grid.

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building electric power supply photovoltaic device

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In the 1970s, solar arrays were installed on domestic and commercial rooftops for the first time, mostly in the United States. Those systems were neither common nor efficient. Most solar arrays were used in isolated areas where electricity from the grid was unavailable. The 1980s saw improvements in efficiency and a reduction in the cost of photovoltaic systems, and solar arrays began to appear more widely on rooftops in cities and suburbs, primarily in developed countries such as the United States and Germany. Photovoltaic materials were first integrated with building facades and rooftops in the 1990s.

BIPV systems have four main components: facades, glazing, pitched roofs, and flat roofs. Facades can be made as photovoltaic materials directly integrated with the building material or as a photovoltaic outer layer. Glazing is the direct integration of photovoltaics with transparent surfaces, such as glass windows. BIPVs on pitched roofs can take the form of solar modules that function as roof tiles. The benefits of such “solar shingles” include extending a normal roof’s life by protecting the roof and insulating the building from ultraviolet rays and water damage. A BIPV system on a flat rooftop usually is a flexible thin-film solar layer, which takes the place of conventional flat-roof materials, such as bitumen or rubber.

BIPV systems have enormous potential when all of the possible surface area from domestic roofs to high-rise glass facades is taken into account. A 2011 assessment of BIPVs by the